The War for Independence: 1945 to 1950August 1945 August 7 BPUPKI renames itself to PPKI: Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (preparatory committee for Indonesia’s independence -ed.). August 9 Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat are flown by the Japanese to Vietnam to meet with Marshal Terauchi. There they are informed of the collapse of Japanese forces, and that Japan will grant Indonesia independence on August 24. August 14 Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat return to Jakarta, mistrustful of the Japanese promise. August 15 Japan surrenders to the Allies. The Japanese army and navy still control Indonesia. Japan has agreed to return Indonesia to the Dutch. August 16 Sukarno and Hatta are spirited away by youth leaders, including Chaerul Saleh, to Rengasdengklok at 3:00 A.M. They later return to Jakarta, meet with General Yamamoto, and spend the next night at Vice-Admiral Maeda Tadashi’s residence. Sukarno and Hatta are told privately that Japan no longer has the power to make decisions regarding the future of Indonesia. August 17 Sukarno reads the brief, succinct, and unilateral “Proklamasi”; the Declaration of Independence. PETA forces, radical youths, and ordinary people in Jakarta organize defense of Sukarno’s residence. Flyers are distributed proclaiming independence. Adam Malik sends out a shortwave announcement of the Proklamasi. August 18 PPKI moves to form an interim government with Sukarno as President and Hatta as Vice-President. August 18 Piagam Jakarta (Jakarta Charter) mentioning Islam among the Pancasila principles is dropped from the preamble to the new constitution. August 18 New Republic consists of 8 provinces: Sumatra, Borneo, West Java, Central Java, East Java, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Sunda Kecil. August 22 Japanese announce their surrender publicly in Jakarta. Japanese forces disarm and disband Peta and Heiho. Many members of these groups have not yet heard of independence. August 23 Sukarno delivers first radio address to the nation. August 23 BKR (Badan Keamanan Rakyat), first Indonesian military force, begins organizing from former Peta and Heiho members. Some former Peta batallions join as entire units, having been told to disband only a few days before. Dutch forces land at Sabang in Aceh. August 29 The New Republic: The constitution that had been drafted by the PPKI preparatory committee, and announced on the 18th, is adopted (UUD 45). Sukarno is declared President, Hatta is declared Vice-President. PPKI (originally BPUPKI, founded under the Japanese occupation the previous March) is remade into KNIP (Central Indonesian National Committee). KNIP is the temporary governing body until elections can be held. The new government is installed on August 31. The Patih (chief advisor) of Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya dies. No successor is chosen; the Sultan takes charge of his own affairs, and begins to institute reforms in Yogya Tan Malaka reappears in Jakarta. Help the People of Aceh Proklamasi: Sukarno at the microphone on August 17, 1945. The original constitution of 1945 is not very specific on many issues, and placed much power in the hands of the President. In 1950 a more comprehensive constitution was adopted that gave the most power to the Assembly, but this constitution was dropped in favor of a return to the 1945 constitution under Sukarno’s orders in 1959. In the opinion of the victorious Allied powers in 1945, Lord Mountbatten, the Allied supreme commander in southeast Asia, was in charge of Sumatra and Java. Australian forces were given responsibility for Kalimantan and Eastern Indonesia. September 1945 September 1 Van Mook, Dutch Lieutenant-Governor of the Indies, meets British Lord Mountbatten in Ceylon, and asks that Japanese troops still in Indonesia be ordered by the British to suppress the Republican government. Mountbatten agrees, but the Japanese delay. September 5 Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya and Pakualam VIII in Yogya declare their palaces to be part of the Republic of Indonesia. September 8 First British troops parachute into Kemayoran Airport at Jakarta. Japanese navy in Kalimantan formally surrenders to Australian forces near Balikpapan. September 9 Japanese navy in eastern Indonesia formally surrender to Australian forces at Morotai. Japanese forces on Timor surrender to Australians in Kupang harbor. September 16 British Rear Admiral Patterson lands in Jakarta. He announces that the British mission is “to maintain law and order until the time that the lawful government of the Netherlands East Indies is once again functioning”. The Dutch ask Patterson to have the leaders of the Republic arrested, but the British high command tells Patterson not to interfere in politics. September 17 Mass pro-Republic rallies in Jakarta. September 23 Patterson sends Captain Huyer of the Dutch Navy to inspect installations in Surabaya. September 27 Republican youths take over PTT (Post, Telegraph and Telephone) headquarters in Bandung. September 29 British reinforcements land in Jakarta. Republican youths take over railways and radio stations in Jakarta, installations in Yogya, Solo, Malang, and Bandung. Mass independence rallies are held in Jakarta and Surabaya. The Susuhunan of Solo declares allegiance to Republic. King of Bone declares support for the Republic; rajas of Makassar and Bugis join him. Balinese rajas declare their support for the Republic. Scattered violence breaks out between youths and Dutch former internees. Dutch soldiers who had been prisoners-of-war under the Japanese are put back into active service against the Republic. Australian troops take surrender from Japanese navy. Australian military gives support to NICA (Netherlands Indies Civil Administration) to retain government control in eastern areas, Sulawesi, and Kalimantan. Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya was an early supporter of the new Republic. Japanese surrender to Australian forces at Koepang, Timor, September 1945. Postage stamps of the Japanese occupation, overprinted with “Repoeblik Indonesia”, 1945. October 1945 October 5 Angkatan Darat (later ABRI, TNI) is founded: Indonesian armed forces. (October 5 is later celebrated as Armed Forces Day.) October 8 Republican forces in Surabaya take Captain Huyer into custody. British troops in Padang, Medan, Palembang. Fighting escalates between Republican youths and foreigners. Dutch troops attack civilians. Malay Nationalist Party is founded in Malaya, with covert ties to the PKI in Indonesia. Republican Angkatan Darat forces skirmish with Dutch on Java, Sumatra, Bali. Japanese military police massacre Republican youths in Pekalongan. “Tiga Daerah” leftist revolution in Brebes, Tegal and Pemalang, north coast of Central Java. (Although the revolutionaries–”laskar”– proclaim support for the Republic, they are undisciplined, and Sukarno has them suppressed in December.) Japanese troops push Republicans out of Bandung; hand over city to British. October 14 Republican youths begin five-day battle against Japanese troops in Semarang. October 16 Sutan Sjahrir and Amir Sjarifuddin take over Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP). Sjahrir publishes pamphlet in support of democracy and social justice, and against feudalism, fascism and the remnants of Japanese fascist thought. Government decree authorizes the formation of political parties. October 17 Van Mook sends telegram to Dutch government urging that negotiations with the Republic be rejected. October 18 Japanese troops secure Semarang; hand over city to British. October 22 Nahdlatul Ulama proclaims that a state of jihad exists against the Dutch, making participation obligatory for Muslims. October 23 Under British pressure, Van Mook meets with Sukarno for informal talks. Neither side gives ground. Japanese Admiral Shibata surrenders Surabaya to Dutch, but hands over his weapons to Republicans. Many Japanese troops are disarmed by Republican youths. October 25 British 49th Indian Infantry arrives under General Mallaby. October 27 British airplanes drop leaflets on Surabaya demanding surrender by Republican forces within 24 hours. British troops on the ground are nearly destroyed by Indonesian troops and mobs of ordinary people. October 29 Sukarno and Hatta arrive in Surabaya by plane. Sukarno and General Mallaby agree on a truce. Poor communications and general chaos prevent Sukarno from enforcing the truce. Australian commander in South Sulawesi bans all political activity, organization of militias, etc. among the public under his control. October 30 British Major General Hawthorn flies to Surabaya from Jakarta. Sukarno, Hatta, Mallaby, and Hawthorn sign a cease-fire. Five hours later Mallaby is killed. British bombard Surabaya as punishment, thousands are left dead or homeless. British strafe civilian refugees on highway. PKI is organized again. Sjahrir was more inclined to negogiate with the Dutch; Sjarifuddin was not only a Communist, but a figure who had received covert support from the Dutch government-in-exile during the war. There was friction between Sjarifuddin as Minister of Defense, who was secretly Communist and had accepted covert help from the Dutch to run his underground movement during World War II, and military officers who had served in PETA under the Japanese and had Islamic sympathies, especially Soedirman. The Malay Nationalist Party would become the ancestor of several Malay socialist/communist organizations, many of which would advocate the union of Malaya with Indonesia. Figures in the MNP and its related organizations included Ishak bin Haji Mohammed, Boestamam, and Ibrahim Ya’acob. All of them would be involved in the “Konfrontasi” between Indonesia and the new nation of Malaysia in the mid-1960s; Ibrahim Ya’acob himself moved to Indonesia in protest in 1957, and had special ties to Sukarno. Van Mook was never quite happy that he had been named “Lieutenant-Governor” instead of “Governor-General” of the Indies. Dutch prisoners just after release from a Japanese concentration camp, 1945. Provisional guards for President Sukarno, Jakarta, 1945. November 1945 November 1 Republican government issues Manifesto Politik. November 3 Hatta announces that the ban on political parties is lifted (Maklumat Pemerintah 10). November 8 Masyumi declares itself to be a political party. November 9 Sukarno asks Sjahrir to form a Cabinet. British 5th Indian Division lands at Surabaya. November 10 (Heroes’ Day/Hari Pahlawan) Indonesian counterattack in Surabaya. Fighting continues for three weeks. 600 Indian troops defect from the British and join the Indonesians. November 11 Sjahrir moves a proposal through KNIP to take powers away from the President and transfer them to a Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The effect is to make Sukarno’s position less powerful for a while. November 12 Sudirman becomes leader of army forces on Java. November 14 Sjahrir is installed as first Prime Minister of Indonesia. Some Japanese troops battle Republican forces on Java, Sumatra, Bali. Dutch abandon Aceh forever. Japanese-favored leaders removed from NU and Muhammadiyah. Kongres Ummat Islam Indonesia meets, remakes the originally Japanese-organized Masyumi as an Indonesian and Islamic political party. Natsir is head of the new Masyumi party. Partai Kristen Indonesia is founded. Barisan Tani Indonesia (Indonesian Peasants Front) is organized by PKI to promote land reform and take actions against landowners. November 23 British Foreign Secretary Bevin urges negotiations between the Dutch and the Republic. PKI begins operating again through front organizations. A British soldier fires at snipers in Surabaya, November 1945. Many of the British occupying troops in Indonesia in 1945 were actually from India. Nehru strongly protested the use of Indian troops against Indonesians; this was an important reason that the British withdrew. December 1945 12-15 December Battle of Ambarawa 15 December Soedirman installed as Panglima Besar (supreme commander) of the army. Allies evacuate remaining Japanese from Aceh; a few Japanese remain to help Republic. “Social War” breaks out in Aceh: the traditional aristocracy loses in a bloody conflict with Islamic leaders. Sjahrir, Sjahrifuddin and their followers form Partai Sosialis. Dutch forces begin to replace Australians as occupying power in eastern areas. Dutch forces increase their presence in the Jakarta area. In the areas that were controlled by the new Republic of Indonesia, Angkatan Darat military forces carried out their mission to repatriate Japanese soldiers, Allied prisoners of war and former internees. Late 1945 saw the rise of “laskar”, or local militias, irregular forces that did not answer to outside authority. Some had ties to various political parties or factions. By 1947, many “laskar” had been absorbed into the Republican army. Sukarno took steps to disband them, even if they claimed nominal allegiance to the Republic. January 1946 January 3 Department of Religion is founded. January 4 Sukarno and Hatta remove by night to Yogya, leaving Sjahrir and the more pro-negotiations faction in Jakarta. PNI party is reestablished. Persatuan Perjuangan (Union of Struggle) formed by Tan Malaka to oppose the Sjahrir government and negotiations with the Dutch. Soedirman speaks against negotiations and Sjahrir. Barisan Banteng radicals kidnap Pakubuwono XII of Surakarta. Gajah Mada University founded in Yogya; Sultan offers front portion of Kraton to house it. Dutch forces occupy Bangka and Belitung. Indonesia issue is raised in the United Nations for the first time. January 31 Gen. Spoor takes command of Dutch forces in the Indies. Gen. S. H. Spoor, commander of Dutch forces in Indonesia, 1946-1949. At the beginning of 1946, Dutch forces in Indonesia numbered about 20,000. February 1946 February 10 Van Mook sends proposal to Sjahrir for “democratic partnership” between the Netherlands and Indonesia, but which still does not provide for real independence. Sjahrir reshuffles cabinet under pressure. March 1946 “Social War” breaks out in Batak areas of Sumatra. Local rulers are accused of collaborating with the Dutch. Tan Malaka and Persatuan Perjuangan increase criticism of Sjahrir. March 12 Sjahrir publicly replies to Van Mook’s offer of February, demanding immediate recognition of Indonesia’s sovereignty without delay. March 17 Sjahrir and Sjarifuddin pull their followers out of Persatuan Perjuangan, arrest Tan Malaka and others. Tan Malaka is held in jail until September 1948. Sjahrir secretly agrees with Dutch to negotiate for Republican control of Java, Madura and Sumatra only, in a political union with the Netherlands, Curaçao and Surinam. Amir Sjarifuddin had been involved in the movements for Indonesian independence since the late 1930s. During World War II, he led a small underground resistance against the Japanese occupation. He served with Sutan Sjahrir in several early governments of the Republic. Just before the “Madiun incident” of September 1948, he revealed that he had been a secret member of the PKI for some time. After the failed Communist revolt at Madiun, he was captured and executed by the military.Amphibious landing by Dutch (KNIL) troops at Sanur beach, Bali, March 1946. April 1946 King of Bone and the local Republican government are arrested by Dutch forces on Sulawesi. Dutch forces replace the British in Bandung. “Bandung Lautan Api”: Indonesians start to burn down the city rather than surrender it to the Dutch. Much of the southern part of Bandung is burned. Barisan Banteng rules Surakarta in defiance of the Sjahrir government. April 14 Dutch and Indonesian representatives begin talks at Hoge Veluwe in the Netherlands. The talks are unsuccessful. Sutan SjahrirSjahrir had been a leading figure in the independence movement in the 1930s, and had spent time in the Boven Digul concentration camp. He organized the governments of the new Republic in 1945-1947, and spent a great deal of energy in negotiations with the Dutch. To some, Sjahrir was a respectable voice of moderation with an educated, Western outlook on things. In his time, he was criticized both by Communists and by Army nationalists for being allegedly “pro-Dutch”. (Among other things, Sjahrir had married a Dutch woman when he was a young student in the Netherlands.) Conversely, Sjahrir was a critic of those who he felt had worked too closely with the Japanese, implicitly criticizing Sukarno as well. May 1946 Violence between Toba and Karo Bataks in Sumatra. Nasution takes command of the new Siliwangi division of Angkatan Darat (the army), named after the first king of Pajajaran. Soedirman gives speech with Sukarno present: government must work for the principles of the Constitution (UUD 45) and independence. 5 Gulden Netherlands Indies banknote, 1946. June 1946 Government revokes the privileges of Pakubuwono and Mangkunegara houses in Surakarta, under pressure from Soedirman. June 27 Army units under General Sudarsono open the jail in Surakarta and release Tan Malaka and his followers. Sjahrir is arrested in Surakarta while on an overnight stay the same night, and is taken to the Kraton (Sultan’s Palace) with other notable figures. General Sudarsono’s troops occupy Yogya. Sukarno declares martial law and demands Sjahrir’s release. Troops loyal to Sukarno advance on Surakarta from Surabaya; the loyal Siliwangi division sends troops to Yogya. Adam Malik and other young radicals are arrested. Soldiers in the Siliwangi Division, 1946. July 1946 Allies officially turn over all of Indonesia except Java and Sumatra to Dutch. July 2 General Sudarsono and Mohamed Yamin visit Sukarno in person, and demand that Sjahrir be replaced by Tan Malaka. Sjahrir, supposedly still a captive, surprises everyone by walking into the room. Sukarno orders that Sudarsono and Yamin be arrested. July 3 “July 3rd Affair”: army units release Adam Malik from jail and demand that Soedirman be put in charge of security. Sukarno takes control of the situation. Sjahrir reorganizes government to include Natsir, Sjarifuddin, the Sultan of Yogya, Haji Agus Salim, and Djuanda. July 15 Van Mook calls conference at Malino, Sulawesi, to plan for new Dutch-sponsored state in eastern Indonesia. The Philippines became independent from the United States on July 4, 1946. The British government annexed the territory of Sarawak on July 1, ending the rule of the Brooke family there, and made North Borneo a crown colony on July 15. September 1946 Talks are reopened between the Sjahrir government and the Dutch at Linggajati, near Cirebon. September 22-24 Violent anti-war protests in Amsterdam. October 1946 October 14 Preliminary military truce signed at Linggajati. November 1946 First rupiah banknotes are issued by the Republic. SOBSI umbrella group of labor organizations is organized with PKI support. November 15 Linggajati agreement: Dutch recognize Republic of Indonesia authority in Java, Sumatra and Madura. Both sides agree to form United States of Indonesia with Netherlands crown as symbolic head. November 20 Battle of Marga: resistance on Bali led by Ngurah Rai is defeated by Dutch forces. November 29 Last British troops leave Indonesia. Dutch Capt. Raymond Westerling begins campaign in South Sulawesi against Republican youths. Westerling and his men commit many war crimes against citizens, including atrocities against children and hospital patients. Capt. Raymond Westerling was a notorious rogue officer for the Dutch during Indonesia’s war of independence. He headed a KNIL detachment called the Depot Speciale Troepen, which was implicated in war crimes which took as many as 5000 civilian lives. Most of the DST troops were actually Indonesians from Maluku. He returned to the Netherlands in 1950, and lived there until 1987. December 1946 December 18-24 Dutch create state of East Indonesia/Negara Indonesia Timur at a conference in Denpasar, Bali. Capital of the new NIT is Makassar, and it includes the entire eastern half of Indonesia. Sjahrir protests. “Left Wing/Sayap Kiri” coalition packs KNIP with pro-Linggajati members. The Dutch delayed signing the Linggajati agreement for months. Many of their actions over the following six months appeared to be aimed at undermining it. February 1947 February 5 Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam student organizatino is founded at Yogya. Sukarno and Hatta threaten to resign if the Linggajati agreement is not ratified. Between December 1946 and February 1947, the Dutch forces (KNIL) executed nearly 3000 people without trial. March 1947 March 25 Netherlands government finally ratifies Linggajati agreement. May 1947 May 11 Dutch create state of West Kalimantan with Sultan of Pontianak at head; Sjahrir protests. Dutch vehicle in flames after a guerilla ambush at Puncak, April 1947. June 1947 Dutch complain that Indonesia is stopping shipments of rice to Dutch-controlled areas. Egypt and Syria recognize the Republic of Indonesia. June Angkatan Darat (Indonesian Army) is renamed TNI. June 26 Dutch forces mobilize for an invasion of Madura, and eventually Java. William Foote, a USA diplomat, intervenes and offers to mediate between Dutch and Indonesians. The invasion is postponed. June 27 Amir Sjarifuddin and the “Left Wing” withdraw support of Sjahrir. Sjahrir leaves the government and becomes Indonesia’s representative at the United Nations. Amir Sjarifuddin becomes Prime Minister. Dutch soldiers in Batavia, 1947. By the start of the first Dutch “police action”, there were 92,000 Dutch forces in Indonesia. July 1947 July 8 Sjarifuddin government makes conciliatory offer to Dutch: Republic of Indonesia will stop seeking international recognition; Netherlands officials can take government positions in the Republic. July 20 first Dutch “police action”: Dutch troops occupy West Java, East Java, Madura, Semarang, Medan, Palembang, Padang, bomb many cities. July 24 20,000 march in anti-war demonstration in Amsterdam. July 30 Young students blow up a bridge at Bumiayu, preventing Dutch forces from taking Purwokerto. USA and Britain are unhappy with the “police action”; India, Australia, and the Soviet Union support the Republic of Indonesia in the UN. Refugees pour into Central Java. Australia boycotts Dutch shipping. A Dutch vehicle fords a stream on Java, after the bridge has been blown up by Indonesian forces. Republik Indonesia 100 Rupiah note, 1947. August 1947 August 1 UN Security Council calls for cease-fire in Indonesia. August 4 Ceasefire agreed to by Dutch and Sukarno, but is ignored in the field. Dutch declare “Van Mook line” at the edge of their military advances in Java and Sumatra. Daud Beureu’eh is military governor of Aceh for the Republic. Sultan Hamid II of Pontianak governed the “Daerah Istimewa Kalimantan Barat” in cooperation with the Dutch (corresponding to today’s Kalimantan Barat province). He was arrested in 1950 for involvement in a plot against the Indonesian government. October 1947 Dutch military tries to consolidate control of areas within the “Van Mook line”. Dutch take control of all of Madura. United Nations “Good Offices Commission” is organized, with the goal of finding a settlement in Indonesia. Australia, Belgium, and the United States take part. December 1947 December 8 Dutch and Indonesian representatives meet on board the U.S.S. Renville, a U.S. Navy transport stationed in the Philippines, which was moved Jakarta harbor for the talks. December 25 Dutch create state of East Sumatra. Indonesian representatives aboard the U.S.S. Renville, December 1947. January 1948 January 17 Renville agreement under UN auspices draws a ceasefire line favorable to Dutch. January 21 Dutch found “Negara Madura” government on Madura. January 23 Sjarifuddin resigns as Prime Minister; the “Left Wing/Sayap Kiri” parties go into opposition. Sukarno appoints Hatta to head an emergency cabinet answerable to President. Dutch organize “Daerah Banjar” government on Kalimantan. Republican forces under Hasan Basry continue fighting from the countryside. The Renville agreement called for a truce along the so-called “Van Mook line”. The original draft did not even mention the Republic. Amendments were added that included mention of the Republic of Indonesia after the United States applied pressure on the Dutch, and it was only then that the Indonesians agreed. The PNI, Masyumi, and Tan Malaka all opposed the Renville agreement. February 1948 Sjahrir forms PSI (Partai Sosialis Indonesia), supports Sukarno. “Left Wing” under Amir Sjarifuddin renames itself People’s Democratic Front (Front Demokrasi Rakyat). Sjarifuddin criticizes the Renville agreement. Col. Nasution leads Siliwangi division out of West Java to Central Java. The Dutch blockaded the areas under control of the Republic of Indonesia around this time, causing shortages of food and medicine. Provisional 50 Rupiah note for “Daerah Banten”, Republik Indonesia, 1948. March 1948 March 9 Van Mook creates a provisional government for federated Indonesia: the “Voorlopige Federale Regering”. The name “Nederlands-Indië” is changed to “Indonesië” in the Netherlands constitution. By this time, Van Mook saw that Indonesia would not remain a colony of the Netherlands forever. His actions became not so much efforts to keep the Netherlands Indies, as ways to manage a slow transition to self-rule. April 1948 April 24 Dutch create state of Pasundan in western Java. May 1948 Kartosuwirjo proclaims himself Imam of Negara Islam Indonesia, or “Darul Islam”, an Islamic state rebelling against both Dutch and the Republic. His followers begin setting up local administrations in West Java. July 1948 July 8 Representatives of 13 Dutch-controlled states created by Van Mook convene at Bandung, to begin process of creating United States of Indonesia. August 1948 August 11 Musso, former PKI leader from the 1920s, arrives in Yogya after spending twelve years in the Soviet Union. Sjarifuddin announces that he has been an underground member of PKI. PKI sponsors strikes and demonstrations. Hatta, with little money to pay troops, begins demobilizing some TNI (army) units. September 1948 PKI gains recruits from PDF; new Politburo includes Aidit, Lukman and Njoto. Republican Government releases Tan Malaka from custody as a counter to PKI influence. September 5 Musso gives speech advocating that Indonesia align itself with the Soviet Union. September 17 Siliwangi division drives PKI out of Surakarta; PKI retreats to Madiun. September 18 PKI attempts a coup in Madiun; kills pro-government officers there. September 19 PKI figures in Yogya arrested; Sukarno denounces the Madiun coup; Musso replies that he will fight; popular opinion sides with Sukarno. September 30 Siliwangi division recaptures Madiun. PKI abandons Madiun, pursued by army. Aidit and Lukman leave for China. The “Madiun incident” was the second time the PKI made an unsuccessful, poorly-planned revolt. The first was against the Dutch in 1926-7; the last was in 1965. The events at Madiun changed the opinion of United States diplomats toward the new Republic. Formerly suspicious, the USA now saw Indonesia as a potential ally against Communism. October 1948 Pro-government Tan Malaka followers create Murba Party. Tan Malaka is arrested again. October 11 Van Mook resigns as Lt.-Governor of the Indies. October 31 Musso killed while attempting to escape arrest. November 1948 November 26 Dutch create state of Jawa Timur in occupied areas of East Java. Dutch abolish post of Governor-General, replacing it with a “High Representative of the Crown”. December 1948 December 1 Amir Sjarifudddin captured. December 11 Dutch inform UN representatives that further talks with the Republic are “futile”. December 18 Dutch organize Negara Sumatra Selatan state, with capital at Palembang. December 18 Dutch officials tell representatives of the United States and the Republic of Indonesia in Jakarta that they are cancelling the Renville agreement. The news does not reach Yogya, as the Dutch have already cut the phone lines there. December 19 Second Dutch “police action” begins at 5:30 A.M. without warning. Yogya falls to the Dutch. Emergency government for Indonesia is declared (PDRI) at Payakumbuh nearby under Sjafruddin Prawiranegara. Soedirman radios his immediate support for the emergency government. Civil government of republic, including Sukarno, Hatta, Sjahrir, allows itself to be captured, hoping to outrage world opinion; Sukarno and Sjahrir are taken into Dutch custody, and eventually flown to Bangka. Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya remains in his palace, and does not leave during the entire Dutch occupation. Dutch occupy Bukittinggi. Tan Malaka escapes again during the confusion. December 20 Army executes Sjarifuddin, withdraws from Yogya. All of Indonesia except for Aceh and parts of Sumatra are under Dutch control. Guerilla warfare heats up; Soedirman leads guerilla war from sickbed. Many American newspapers publish editorials against the Dutch. December 22 Nasution declares military government for Java. UN is outraged at Dutch; Dutch attack while UN observers are at Kaliurang. 19 Asian countries boycott Dutch. Dutch-chosen members of East Indonesia state government vote to condemn the “police action”. USA suspends postwar aid to the Netherlands (Marshall Plan money) that is budgeted for military use in Indonesia. December 24 UN Security Council calls for end to hostilities. December 31 Dutch accept UN call for ceasefire in Java. Panglima Besar SoedirmanSoedirman is warmly remembered today as perhaps the greatest hero of the revolution. Towards the end of the fighting, he fell ill and directed troops from his sickbed. Soedirman was another complex character in the revolutionary era. He had been impressed by Japanese military traditions and the spirit of bushido; yet he was also thought to be sympathetic to the leftist movement of Tan Malaka. He was one of the military figures who was not completely trusting of the political leadership (such as Sjahrir), as to them the political leadership seemed more interested in compromise than victory. This feeling was certainly strengthened when the entire political leadership allowed itself to be taken captive by the Dutch on December 19, 1948. January 1949 January 5 Dutch accept UN call for ceasefire in Sumatra Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya refuses Dutch offer to head new Javanese state, resigns as head of Yogya government, and gives help to Republic guerilla fighters. January 28 UN Security Council demands release of the Republican government, and independence for Indonesia by July 1, 1950. There was significant guerilla activity against the Dutch during this period, led by Nasution and Sudirman. At the height of Dutch activity in the 1940s, there were around 150,000 Dutch forces in Indonesia. February 1949 February 7 Resolution is introduced in United States Senate to stop all Marshall Plan aid to the Netherlands. Resolution is defeated on March 8. March 1949 March 1 Guerillas retake Yogya for six hours under Suharto. (Later, this event would be called the “serangan umum” or “public offensive”.) March 31 U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson privately tells Dutch that their Marshall Plan aid is still in jeopardy. April 1949 April 6 United States Senate passes resolution to stop Marshall Plan aid to the Netherlands, but only if the UN Security Council votes sanctions against the Netherlands. April 16 Tan Malaka is captured and executed by a TNI commander after a Dutch contingent attacks the town where he was staying. April 22 Dutch announce that they will return the Republican government to Yogya if the guerilla war stops. Sjarifudin Prawiranegara headed the emergency PDRI government while Sukarno, Hatta, and the rest of the regular Republican government were being held by the Dutch. He would be involved in Indonesian politics for many years to come, as part of the rebel PRRI government in 1958, and yet again as a signer of the “Petition of 50″ criticizing the government in 1980. May 1949 Sukarno and Hatta remain in custody on Bangka. May 7 “Roem-Royem” agreement: Dutch agree to restore the Republic of Indonesia government, to hold talks according to the UN Security Council resolution of January 28, and to work towards a settlement based on the Renville agreement. General Spoor, commander of the Dutch in Indonesia, resigns. He dies of a heart attack on May 25. June 1949 June 24 Dutch troops begin evacuating Yogya. June 29 Indonesian troops enter Yogya. July 1949 July 6 Republican government returns to Yogya. Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX receives Sukarno and Hatta at the Kraton. July 13 Power is transferred back from the emergency PDRI government under Prawiranegara to the Republican government in Yogya under Sukarno. Dutch-created states hold conference, support joining the Republic. August 1949 Republic troops retake Surakarta. August 7 Darul Islam movement formally breaks with the Republic of Indonesia. August 11 Ceasefire on Java. August 15 Ceasefire on Sumatra. Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya coordinates handovers from Dutch to Republic. Dutch begin releasing 12,000 prisoners. August 23 Round Table conference begins in the Hague. Hatta head delegation for the Republic of Indonesia, Sultan of Pontianak heads delegation from the Dutch-created states. November 1949 November 2 The Hague Agreement is the result of the Round Table Conference: “Republik Indonesia Serikat” is supposed to have the crown of the Netherlands as a symbolic head, Sukarno as President, and Hatta as Vice-President. It consists of 15 Dutch-created states plus the original Republic. Sovereigny is to be transferred by December 30. Dutch investments are protected, and the new government is responsible for the billion-dollar Netherlands Indies government debt. The Dutch keep Irian Jaya. December 1949 December 19 Universitas Gadjah Mada founded at Yogya. December 27 Dutch formally transfer sovereignty to “Republik Indonesia Serikat” (Republic of United States of Indonesia). December 28 Sukarno is returned to Jakarta. The Dutch finally signed their defeat at this table, preserved still in the Kraton Yogyakarta. As part of the transfer of sovereignty, Chinese residents of the new Indonesia were given a choice to accept Indonesian citizenship or maintain Chinese citizenship. The government of China, unlike Indonesia, recognized dual citizenship. Late in 1949, the PKI began a campaign to restore its public image, which had been damaged by the attempted coup in Madiun in 1948. The center of this strategy was to stop criticizing Sukarno and the new Republic and to declare the PKI as supporters of Sukarno. Sukarno returns to Jakarta, December 1949.Raising the Indonesian flag at Semarang, 1949. January 1950 January 23 Dutch Capt. Westerling attempts assassination and coup in Bandung; some members of Dutch-created Pasundan government are involved. January 29 Soedirman dies. February 1950 February 9 Pasundan government dissolves itself. February 22 Westerling leaves Indonesia via Singapore using a forged Netherlands passport. March 1950 March 9 Negara Sumatra Selatan, Negara Madura, and Jawa Timur dissolve themselves into the Republic. March 13 Rupiah is devalued by one-half. March 31 Garuda Airlines is founded (originally as a joint venture with KLM). April 1950 April 4 Sultan of Pontianak is arrested for connections with the Westerling plot. RUSI takes over West Kalimantan state. April 5 Capt. Andi Aziz, formerly of KNIL, takes control of Makassar. Republic and pro-Dutch forces clash; East Indonesia government is shaken. Minahasa region separates itself from Negara Indonesia Timur and joins the Republic. April 18 RUSI forces retake control of Ujung Pandang. “Benteng” program is started to support “pribumi” (native, meaning non-Chinese) businesses. Program lasts until 1957. April 25 Republic of South Maluku proclaimed at Ambon. May 1950 East Indonesia/Negara Indonesia Timur agress to dissolve itself into the Republic of Indonesia on August 17, 1950. June 1950 June 4 Gerakan Wanita Indonesia Sedar or GERWIS is founded, a leftist organization for women (later GERWANI). July 1950 Republic of Indonesia troops begin putting down Republic of South Maluku. Fighting continues on Ambon and Buru until November. July 20 The Netherlands Indies armed forces (KNIL) are officially disbanded. As many as 300,000 Dutch citizens left Indonesia for the Netherlands during the early 1950s. August 1950 17 August New constitution; the new Republic of Indonesia is made out of the original (now expanded) Republic, Sumatra Timur and East Indonesia/Negara Indonesia Timur. There is no more RUSI. Jakarta is the capital of the Republic. The Netherlands and Indonesia remain in a theoretical constitutional union, but Indonesia is fully independent. 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1940 to 1945: Perang Dunia II (the Second World War)1940 May 10 Germany invades the Netherlands. May 15 The Netherlands surrenders to Germany; Dutch government flees to London. Netherlands Indies government declares a state of siege, and places the Indies on a wartime footing. German citizens in the Netherlands Indies are placed in internment camps. June Young Suharto enters the KNIL military school at Gombang. June 28 Japan says that it wants to renegotiate trade agreements with the Netherlands. July Indonesian exports to Japan are stopped. August Japan suggests that French Indochina and the Netherlands Indies should be incorporated willingly into the “East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”. August 9 GAPI presents another petition for the “complete democratization of Indonesia”. August 23 Commission for the Study of Constitutional Reforms is set up to look into the GAPI demands (but nothing else). Thamrin and others in the Volksraad withdraw their proposals for democratization, saying that the situation was becoming hopeless. September Japanese troops move into French Indochina. September 12 Netherlands Indies government begins trade talks with a Japanese delegation under Kobayashi. Van Mook does not cooperate with Japanese demands for aviation fuel. October 26 Japan and the Netherlands issue a joint declaration that the Indies will not be part of the “Co-Prosperity Sphere”. November 12 Quota on oil sales to Japan from the Indies is set by agreement. December Kobayashi returns to Japan. Help the People of Aceh Even after the Netherlands had been taken over by Nazi Germany, the Dutch still held onto their colonies. For over a year and a half, the Netherlands East Indies government continued to rule over Indonesia, reporting to the Dutch government-in-exile. Efforts by Indonesian activists to organize self-rule were ignored. Some Japanese extremists had talked about building an empire in the Pacific in the early 1930s, or even earlier. In 1940, however, Japan still faced a possible military threat from the Soviet Union, and the Japanese military was unwilling to overextend their forces too far to the south. 1941 January 6 Dutch arrest Thamrin, Douwes Dekker and other nationalists. Thamrin dies in custody five days later. Douwes Dekker is exiled to Surinam. January 11 New, more agressive Japanese negotiating team under Yoshizawa arrives in Batavia. February Increasing Japanese pressure on the Netherlands Indies government to “join the East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” is rebuffed by Van Mook. May 14 Japanese send an ultimatum to the Netherlands Indies government, demanding Japanese influence and presence in the region. June 6 Talks between Dutch and Japanese collapse. Netherlands Indies government replies that no concessions to Japan will be made, and that all strategic products (including oil and rubber) have been contracted for shipment to Britain and the United States. July 11 Volksraad organizes an Indonesian militia. July 25 Japan announces a “protectorate” over Indochina. July 26 Japanese assets in the Netherlands Indies are frozen. July 30 Dutch government-in-exile promises to hold conference on Indonesia after the war. November 30 Dutch naval forces in the Indies begin mobilizing. December 5 Netherlands Indies government sends a request to Australia to send forces to Ambon and Timor. Australian Air Force planes and personnel arrive on December 7. December 8 Japanese invade Malaya, landing in southernmost Thailand and northern Malaya. Japanese begin attacking the Philippines. Netherlands, among other nations, declares war on Japan. December 10 British battleships Prince of Wales and Repulse are sunk within hours of each other off Malaya. December 16 Anti-Dutch Acehnese make contact with Japanese forces in Malaya. December 17 Australian-led force lands in East Timor. Portuguese dictator Salazar protests.December 17 Japanese air raid on Ternate.Japanese land in Sarawak. December 22 Main Japanese invasion force lands in the Philippines. Hatta writes a newspaper article calling on Indonesians to oppose the Japanese. December 24 Japanese attack British forces at Kuching, Sarawak. In August 1941, the Atlantic Charter was signed by the USA, Britain, and the governments-in-exile of many of the occupied nations of Europe, including the Netherlands. The Charter called for the “right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live”, among other things. In September of the same year, Dutch diplomats clarified that they did not think this applied to Indonesia. In 1941, the British and Americans as well as the Dutch began to tighten restrictions on business with Japan, including embargoes on supplies that could be used to wage war. In response, Japan announced that it would try to organize the “Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere”, a bloc that would supply raw materials to Japan and receive exports in return. The original idea stretched the bloc as far as India and New Zealand. The bloc would be controlled by the Japanese military. Japanese propaganda also advanced the idea that Asian colonies of European powers should be free from Western control–but this implied that control of those colonies would fall to Japan by military force. Oil fields at Tarakan: Indonesia’s strategic natural resources made it a valuable prize during the Second World War. Oil fields and refineries were important to the Japanese war effort, and were frequent targets of Allied bombing raids. The circumstances of Thamrin’s death are not clear, except that he definitely died while in Dutch custody. The Netherlands Indies government suspected Thamrin and the others arrested in January 1941 of secretly collaborating with the Japanese. January 1942 January 2 Japanese take city of Manila. January 3 Japanese take Sabah. January 6 Japanese take Brunei.January 6 First Japanese air raid on Ambon.January 10 Japanese begin invasion of Indonesia in Kalimantan (Tarakan) and Sulawesi (Manado). January 11 Japanese take Tarakan. January 12 Van Mook makes an emergency trip to the United States, asking for reinforcements, and that the Netherlands Indies not be forgotten in the Allied defenses. January 13 Japanese take Manado. January 15 British Gen. Wavell takes command of ABDACOM, the first Allied joint command (Australian, British, Dutch, American) in the war. January 16 Acehnese agents return from Malaya with promises of Japanese support against the Dutch. January 23 Japanese take Balikpapan in spite of a strong Dutch and U.S. attack. January 25 Japanese take Kendari on Sulawesi. January 30 Japanese attack Ambon. KNIL and Australian forces destroy supplies to prevent them from falling into Japanese hands. Ambon city is taken within 24 hours. Fighting continues through February 2. Australian defenders suffer 90 percent casualties; many are massacred in February after being taken prisoner. British troops evacuate Malaya for Singapore. The Netherlands Indies government had few resources of its own. With the Netherlands under control and the home government in exile in London, defense of the area fell mostly to the British and Americans. When the British lost Malaya and Singapore, and the Americans lost the Philippines, the defense of the Netherlands Indies became hopeless. February 1942 February 1 Japanese take Pontianak. February 3 Japanese bomb Surabaya, beginning air raids on targets on Java. February 4 Battle of Makassar Strait (naval battle between Kalimantan and Sulawesi): Japanese air and sea power forces Allies to withdraw to Cilacap. Japanese advance into Sulawesi.February 6 Japanese begin bombing Palembang.February 8 Japanese begin main assault on Singapore. February 9 Japanese bomb Batavia, Surabaya and Malang. February 10 Japanese take Ujung Pandang (Makassar).February 14 Japanese land paratroopers at Palembang, taking the city and its valuable oil industry.February 15 Singapore falls; 130,000 troops under British command are taken as prisoners of war. February 18 Van Mook, in Australia, pleads for Allied forces to make an offensive. February 19 Battle of Badung Strait (naval battle between Bali and Lombok): small Japanese force drives back Dutch and Australians. Japanese land on Bali. First Japanese air raid on Darwin, Australia. February 20 Japanese land on Timor. February 23 Revolt against Dutch begins in Aceh and North Sumatra, with Japanese support. Dutch transfer Sukarno to Padang; Sukarno slips away in chaos as Dutch evacuate. Dutch evacuate Sjahrir and Hatta from Banda by air minutes before the Japanese begin bombing the island. Japanese claim fall of Timor; Australian forces continue guerilla warfare. February 27 to March 1 Battle of Java Sea: Japanese destroy much of the Dutch and Australian naval forces near Surabaya. American destroyers escape to Australia. Dutch Admiral Doorman is killed. Hubertus Van MookVan Mook was to be the last Dutch head of government for the Netherlands Indies. In the 1930s, he was an official with liberal, reformist views. In the early 1940s, he was a tireless advocate for the Netherlands Indies, frustrating Japan in negotiations while quietly pleading with Britain and the USA for defense supplies. After the war, he would in turn both battle against and negotiate with the new Republic of Indonesia, until he resigned in October 1948. Admiral DoormanAdm. Doorman went down with his ship in the Battle of the Java Sea. March 1942 March 1 Battle of Sunda Strait: Japanese invasion force lands at Banten. Japanese invasion force lands west of Surabaya. Japanese air raid on Medan. March 5 Japanese air strikes at Cilacap. Japanese enter Batavia.March 7 Japanese take Cilacap. March 7 Rangoon falls to Japanese. March 8 Dutch under Starkenborgh in Java surrender outside Bandung. Van Mook escapes in a plane to Australia at the last moment. Japanese take Surabaya. March 11 Acehnese resistance engages in battles with retreating Dutch.March 12 Japanese land at Sabang. Operations in Aceh are finished around March 15.March 12 Japanese arrive at Medan. March 18 Japanese take Padang.March 28 Last Dutch force on Sumatra surrenders at Kutatjane, in the south of Aceh. Japanese ban all political activities and existing organizations. Volksraad is abolished. A ban is placed on merah-putih flags. Japanese 16th Army is in charge of Java; 25th Army in Sumatra (headquarters at Bukittinggi); Navy controls eastern Indonesia (headquarters at Ujung Pandang). In March 1942, the Allied forces on Java were told by scouts that a Japanese force of 250,000 was marching on Bandung, when in fact the force was only one-tenth that size. This wrong information may have been a part of the Allied surrender on Java. The Dutch actually transferred Communists being held in prison camps in the Netherlands Indies, some of them since 1926, to prison camps in Australia when the Japanese arrived. April 1942 April 7 Three Netherlands Indies Radio employees are executed for playing the Dutch national anthem over the radio on March 18, after the capitulation.April 7 Japanese take Ternate.Japanese try to organize “AAA” movement; start propaganda campaigns. ABDACOM is dissolved. British and Americans divide responsibilities of war: British will try to retake Malaya and Sumatra as well as Burma. Rest of the Pacific and Indonesia becomes the responsibility of the U.S. (working with Australia). April 19 Japanese take Hollandia (now Jayapura). Gen. Imamura of the Japanese 16th Army, head of the occupation of Java in 1942.In April 1942, about 200 Allied soldiers who had escaped into the hills of East Java to continue fighting were rounded up by the Japanese under Imamura’s command. They were packed into bamboo livestock cages, transported in open rail cars to Surabaya, then taken to sea and thrown overboard to sharks, while still in the bamboo cages. Imamura was found guilty of this atrocity by an Australian military court after the war. May 1942 May 9 Japanese occupy Lombok. May 13 Japanese occupy Sumbawa.May 14 Japanese land on Flores, completing occupation by May 17.May 16 Japanese occupy Sumba. June 1942 June 17 Netherlands government-in-exile in London sets up consultative board for the affairs of the Netherlands Indies. July 1942 Remaining KNIL forces send detachments to Kai, Aru and Tanimbar islands.Japanese assemble Sukarno, Hatta, and Sjahrir in Jakarta. Sukarno, Hatta, Sjahrir meet privately: Sukarno to rally masses for independence, Hatta to handle diplomatic connections, Sjahrir to coordinate underground activities. Sukarno accepts Japanese offer to be head of Indonesian government, but answerable to Japanese military. July 30 Japanese occupy the Kai and Aru Islands, after some resistance on Kai.July 31 Japanese take the Tanimbar Islands after some resistance by KNIL and Australian detachments at Saumlaki. Propaganda billboard celebrating the victories of Japanese troops, including Pearl Harbor in the upper right inset, Jakarta, 1942. Outwardly cooperating with the Japanese was the only option Sukarno and Hatta really had. The ultimate goal, of course, was not to support Japan, but to win independence for Indonesia. Later, the returning Dutch would try to accuse Sukarno of being a Japanese collaborator in order to get British support against the new Indonesian republic. Sjahrir, for his part, directed underground activities from his sister’s house at Cipanas, near Bogor. Information was frequently and quietly shared between Sukarno, who could get information from Japanese inner circles, and Sjahrir. August 1942 August 29 Japanese begin transferring some forces from Sumatra and Java to the Solomon Islands. September 1942 Indonesian Muslims refuse to bow towards Japanese Emperor in Tokyo. October 1942 Japanese military advances in the Pacific stop; Japanese commanders told to organize pro-Japanese sentiments in occupied areas. October 16 Japanese 16th Army sends garrisons to Lombok, Sumba and Timor. “Work to Achieve Greater East Asia”: Japanese propaganda poster. At the beginning, Japanese propaganda sounded like an improvement over Dutch rule. After the Japanese troops began stealing food and taking men for forced labor, the opinion of Indonesians turned against them. Against Indonesians, the Japanese military was mostly guilty of three things: forced labor, in which many Indonesian men were taken from their homes and sent as far as Burma to do construction and other hard labor in terrible conditions. Many thousands died or disappeared. forced requisitioning, in which Japanese soldiers took food, clothing, and other supplies from Indonesian families by force and without compensation. This led to much hunger and suffering during the war. forced slavery of women, in which Indonesian women were kept as “comfort women” for the amusement of Japanese soldiers. In addition, the Japanese kept Dutch civilians in internment camps under poor conditions, and treated military prisoners of war in Indonesia badly. War crimes in Indonesia–serious as they were–were not nearly as serious as those committed in China or Korea during the same period, however. Some commanders, such as Gen. Imamura in Java, were publicly criticized in Tokyo newspapers for being too “soft”. There were even Japanese officers who were sympathetic to the idea of Indonesian independence, and who went out of their way to support Indonesian political figures and organizations, right up to Sukarno himself. November 1942 Revolt in Aceh is put down by the Japanese. Gen. Imamura is replaced on Java by Gen. Harada. (Imamura is reassigned to Rabaul.) December 1942 December 7 Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, in exile, gives a speech promising a reformed relationship with the colonies after the war. December 27 Japanese open first internment camp for Dutch women at Ambarawa. Sukarno poses with a “romusha” work gang. January 1943 Japanese arrest Amir Sjarifuddin, break up his resistance movement. Sjarifuddin is sentenced to death, but Sukarno intervenes on his behalf. Australian guerillas evacuate East Timor. The case of Amir Sjarifuddin is an unusual one. He was a Communist, yet received funds from the Dutch government-in-exile to support his resistance movement against the Japanese. February 1943 February 9 Japanese send extra troops to Tanimbar and Kai Islands, and Irian Jaya.February 10 Last Australian guerillas are evacuated from East Timor, after a year of resistance in the bush. March 1943 March 9 Japanese organize Putera (Pusat Tenaga Rakyat, a political auxiliary organization). Sukarno is named chairman. Hatta and Ki Hadjar Dewantoro are members. Japanese begin to organize local military auxiliaries (”Heiho”), attached to regular Japanese units. Indonesian “heiho” soldiers train with wooden staffs instead of weapons, 1943. Heiho soldiers from Indonesia were a combination of volunteers and forced conscripts. The Japanese military did not treat them with the same respect as Japanese soldiers. July 1943 Japanese arrest 1000 in South Kalimantan. July 7 Japanese Prime Minister Tojo promises Indonesians limited self-government in a speech at Gambir, Jakarta. August 1943 August 13 US bombers from Australia hit Balikpapan. Japanese begin to take over sugar estates in favor of Japanese sugar producers; European managers are sent to internment camps. Around this time, many Protestant (”Kristen”) churches established Indonesian leaderships after Dutch churchmen and missionaries had been sent to Japanese internment camps. A side-effect of the Japanese occupation was to make Protestant churches more Indonesian. September 1943 Revolts against Japanese put down in South and West Kalimantan. September 8 Orders are issued from Japanese military headquarters in Saigon to organize “Giyugun” (local armies) throughout southeast Asia. By the end of the war, around two million Indonesian had been recruited for service in the Giyugun or as Heiho auxiliaries. The Japanese felt that recruiting locals for defense was necessary, since Japanese units were increasingly being called up to fight the Americans elsewhere in the Pacific. October 1943 October 3 Japanese organize “Giyugun” (local defense forces) for Sumatra and Java. The force for Java is called PETA (Pembela Tanah Air). October The MIAI umbrella organization is remade into Masyumi (Majlis Syurah Muslimin Indonesia) under Japanese oversight. Japanese begin to impose compulsory labor on villagers (romusha), many thousands die or disappear. Japanese impose rice requisitioning. Dutch marine brigades in exile begin training at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, USA, with the ultimate goal of retaking the Netherlands Indies. Officers in PETA assemble for review, 1943. Many notable figures were signed up for PETA, including Soedirman and Suharto. Independence activists saw military training not so much as support for Japan as preparation for possible independence. By mid-1945, there were 120,000 armed fighters in PETA. This group later formed the core of the new Indonesian Armed Forces (TNI, later ABRI) after independence was proclaimed in 1945. November 1943 November 3 Hatta gives a speech urging Indonesians to join the Giyugun (PETA). November 10 Sukarno, Hatta, and Kyai Bagus Hadikusumo are flown to Tokyo to be decorated by the Emperor of Japan. This was the first time that Sukarno had travelled abroad. Hatta, who had spent years in Europe, was less easily impressed. December 1943 Barisan Hizbullah is organized by the Japanese; an armed force of Muslim youths associated with Masyumi. 1944 January Putera is replaced by the Jawa Hokokai/Java Service Association. Sukarno is chairman. April 19 Allies bomb Sabang in Aceh. April 22 Allies retake Hollandia (now Jayapura). May 9 Japanese commanders decide to abandon West Irian. May 17 Allied air raid on Surabaya. May 27 US force lands on Biak. June 4 Japanese begin counterattack on Biak. August Barisan Pelopor is organized as the youth wing of Jawa Hokokai (after independence, it would become known as Barisan Benteng). August 11 Allied air raid on Palembang. August 28-29 Ambon is mostly destroyed by Allied air raids. September 8 Japanese General Koiso promises that Indonesia (meaning all the territories of the Netherlands Indies) will be independent in the “very near future”. September 8 US forces finally clear the last Japanese forces from Biak. September 15 Allies land on Morotai. Japanese authorities begin organizing regional councils (with advisory powers only). October Australian forces begin bombing Balikpapan. Japanese organize a Central Advisory Council, similar to the Volksraad, with no legislative powers. November Harada is replaced as military governor by Yamamoto. Pakubuwono XII becomes Susuhunan of Surakarta. A small Netherlands East Indies administration was set up in the eastern areas that Allied forces passed through in 44-45 on their way to the Philippines. Towards the end of the war, the death toll among Dutch nationals and other Europeans in the Japanese internment camps was as high as 20%. 10 Rupiah note issued by Japanese occupation forces, 1944. February 1945 February 14 Peta soldiers at Blitar attack the Japanese armory there. March 1945 March 1 Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (BPUPKI), a committee to prepare for Indonesian Independence, is announced by the Japanese. Members include Sukarno, Hatta, Wahid Hasyim, many others. Chairman is Dr. Radjiman Wediodiningrat. April 1945 Japanese Vice-Admiral Maeda, head of Naval Intelligence in Indonesia, sponsors speaking tour by Sukarno and Hatta to Ujung Pandang. April 30 Australian and Dutch forces land at Tarakan. Sukarno poses with Japanese military and civilian officials in Ujung Pandang in April 1945. May 1945 May 2 BPUPKI holds first session (until June 1). Supomo speaks to the committee against personal individualism, and in favor of national integration. Muhammad Yamin proposes that the new nation should include Sarawak, Sabah, Malaya, and Portuguese Timor, as well as all the territories of the Netherlands Indies. Yamin also suggests that the new Indonesia should ignore international law and declare all ocean areas between islands as territorial waters. May 3 Acehnese guerillas overrun Japanese outpost at Pandrah, killing all Japanese forces with no losses among their own. Controversy continues among BPUPKI attendees regarding the role of Islam in the new Indonesia. Yamin’s statements to the BPUPKI committee were strongly nationalistic, and made appeals to the history and territorial claims of Majapahit as well as general appeals to unite peoples of a common Malay race and culture. “Independence is almost here”: Japanese propaganda poster from 1945. Note the combination of Japanese soldier and the children with the Indonesian merah-putih flag. June 1945 Maeda sponsors speaking tour by Sukarno and Hatta to Bali and Banjarmasin. June 1 Sukarno describes “Pancasila” doctrine in speech to the BPUPKI independence committee.June 10 Australian forces land in Brunei. Dutch forces land in North Sumatra. June 22 A special commission under Sukarno to resolve the disputes over the role of Islam in the new Republic settles on compromise language, later known as the Piagam Jakarta or “Jakarta Charter”. The compromise language simply states that Muslims are obligated to follow Islamic law. June 24 Allied forces land on Halmahera. The Pancasila is the national doctrine of Indonesia, the ideals that society should try to live up to. For more info, see the Notes on Pancasila. July 1945 Japanese military meets in Singapore. Plans are made to hand over Indonesia to Indonesian independence leaders. July 1 Australian forces take Balikpapan. U.S. bombers hit Watampone, other sites in Kalimantan and Sulawesi. July 8 Sekolah Islam Tinggi is founded in Batavia (ancestor of the IAIN network of religious universities). July 10 Second BPUPKI session is held (until July 17) for discussions to draft a constitution for Indonesia. Hatta criticizes Yamin’s nationalistic statements, and suggests that West Irian might be left out of the new Indonesia. Sukarno supports Yamin. Haji Agus Salim suggests that people in the British and Portuguese possessions could vote on whether to join Indonesia. A majority of the committee votes that Indonesia should include Malaya, Sarawak, Sabah and Portuguese Timor, as well as all the Netherlands Indies. July 11 US air raid on Sabang. Courtesy——————————-Islam Muslim Islamic banking finance insurance marriage clothing fashion software qurban Makkah & Madinah.

1910 to 1940: New Nationalism1911 Abendanon publishes R. A. Kartini’s letters with the title “Door Duisternis Tot Licht”. Newspaper al-Munir begins publishing in Padang. Bubonic plague outbreak on Java. Throughout history, the bubonic plague had never before spread to Java. Tens of thousands died of the plague in 1911-1913, and it was twenty-five years before the disease was eradicated from Java again, after extensive campaigns against rats. 1912 September 10 Sarekat Dagang Islamiyah changes name to Sarekat Islam under Tjokroaminoto. Indische Partij is founded by Setiabudi (Douwes Dekker), Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo and Ki Hajar Dewantoro. All three are exiled within a year. Portuguese suppress revolt in East Timor. November 18 Kyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan founds Muhammadiyah in Yogya. Dutch send another military expedition to the Tanimbar Islands. Kyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan, founder of Muhammadiyah. The Muhammadiyah remains one of the large, respected Islamic organizations in Indonesia today. It has been known for its “modernist” Islamic viewpoint. 1913 January Sarekat Islam congress in Surabaya resolves to broaden their activities throughout the Indies. Kartini Fonds founded in Netherlands to support women’s education on Java. Gov-Gen Idenburg recognizes Sarekat Islam as legal organization. Indische Partij is banned; leaders go to Netherlands. Netherlands Indies government is given the power to borrow money without first receiving permission from the Netherlands. Suwardi Suryaningrat (later called Ki Hadjar Dewantoro) publishes “Als Ik Eens Nederlander Was”, a nationalist document. He is exiled to the Netherlands until 1919. Seeng Tee opens a tobacconist shop outside Surabaya–beginning of the Sampoerna clove cigarette company. H.O.S. Cokroaminoto (or Tjokroaminoto) 1914 Hollandsch-Inlandsche schools are reorganized, become schools for Indonesian well-to-do. Paguyuban Pasundan organization founded as a social and cultural organization for Sundanese in western Java. May 9 Sneevliet founds Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging, would become PKI (Indonesian Communist Party). War in Europe: Dutch government considers local militia for Indonesia. Great Colonial Exhibition in Semarang, attended by Pakubuwono X of Surakarta and entourage. Netherlands Indies government founds a flight test facility at Surabaya to study the performance of aircraft in tropical conditions. KNIL organizes an airborne auxiliary. Nias comes under complete Dutch control. KNIL occupation forces on Bali are withdrawn and replaced by regular police units. Insulinde is founded, supporters include Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo, returned from exile. In the beginning, the ISDV and PKI would have mostly Dutch members. Radio transmitting station in Koepang, Timor, about 1915. 1915 Haji Agus Salim joins Sarekat Islam, promotes Islamic modernism.Tri Koro Dharma is founded as a youth organization of Budi Utomo. (Name is changed to Jong Java in 1918.) Soedirman born. British and Dutch sign treaty fixing the boundary between North Borneo (Sabah) and the Netherlands Indies. Street scene in Surabaya, 1915. 1916 Delegation with members from Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam, and other organizations tours the Netherlands. Netherlands Indies government organizes “Politiek Inlichtingen Dienst”, a special police force for investigating political crimes (later renamed to “Algemene Recherche”). J.P. Count van Limburg Stirum is Governor-General until 1921. Young Sukarno attends school in Surabaya, lives with Tjokroaminoto. June Sarekat Islam holds convention in Bandung; some members and traditional Javanese are unhappy with modernism. Mangkunegara VII takes rule of his house in Surakarta. December States-General in the Netherlands passes bill to create a Koloniale Raad (later Volksraad) for the Netherlands Indies. For more background on Sarekat Islam, the Muhammadiyah, and Nahdlatul Ulama, see the Notes on Islam in modern Indonesia. 1917 Sarekat Islam begins to take a more anti-government position. Leftists from Semarang gather in Sarekat Islam under Semaun; Tjokroaminoto does not oppose them. Netherlands considers conscripting Indonesians for military service; leftists in Sarekat Islam oppose this. Aisyiyah, women’s auxiliary to Muhammadiyah, is founded. Modern port facilities are constructed at Surabaya. Ki Hajar Dewantoro returns from exile. The Netherlands, and the Netherlands Indies, were neutral during World War I, but they still maintained military preparedness. The war disrupted trade between the Indies and Europe, but business with the United States and Japan increased. Labor shortages during wartime led to strikes and higher wages. Haji Agus Salim was an early figure in Sarekat Islam; he later served in the early governments of the Republic of Indonesia in the 1940s. 1918 May 18 Volksraad meets for the first time. 39% of its members are Indonesian. Members are elected by local councils from kabupaten. most members are government officials or bupati. It consists of one house, and serves in an advisory capacity only. Gov.-Gen. van Limburg Stirum appoints Tjokroaminoto to Volksraad. Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo is also seated. ISDV starts to organize soviets in Surabaya. “Sarekat Islam B”, secret revolutionary branch, starts organizing. It includes Musso (and possibly Tjokroaminoto). Sarekat Sumatra founded. Smallpox epidemic hits Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan. Jong Minahasa organization founded. Nederlands-Indië government starts to suppress ISDV soviets, drives Dutch members from communist movement. The “November Promise”: Dutch government says that Indonesia will have self-government in the undetermined future. November 14 Indonesian members of the Volksraad condemn the Netherlands Indies government for favoring European interests. Nederlands-Indië government exiles Sneevliet. Douwes Dekker returns from exile. Gov-Gen J.P. Count van Limburg StirumVan Limburg Stirum in 1918 made statements that the Volksraad should prepare to take a greater role in government. However, he was not motivated by independence or nationalism–he was worried by rumors of a Socialist takeover in the Netherlands and was ready for the Indies to go its own way if that happened. Nevertheless, he was criticized in the Indies and in the Netherlands for being soft on Indonesian nationalists, and he was soon replaced. 1919 May-June Shooting in Garut; assassination of a Dutch official at Tolitoli, Sulawesi. Dutch use shootings as an excuse to suppress Sarekat Islam Section B. Indo-Europees Verbond founded to promote the cause of “Eurasians”, while also supporting the Dutch. Haji Misbach preaches “Islamic Communism” in Surakarta December Sarekat Islam claims 2 million members; holds congress in Yogya. KLM opens long-distance air service from Amsterdam to Batavia. There was some confusion in Indonesia as to what “communism” really meant, which led to such unusual concepts as “Islamic Communism”. Many common people joined such movements in the 1920s. They used the mass organizations that grew around Communist slogans to express their dissatisfaction with colonialism and the conditions of life. Some Islamic leaders were happy to see the Communists leave (or be thrown out) of organizations like Sarekat Islam. Other leaders, such as Sukarno, said that all organizations should cooperate in the struggle for independence; that Islam, Communism, and nationalism could work together as long as none of them upset the overall harmony of the movement. 1920 May 27 ISDV changes name to Perserikatan Komunis di Hindia (later PKI). PKH publishes works by Lenin. Technische Hoogeschool founded at Bandung (today’s ITB: Institut Teknologi Bandung). Sarekat Ambon founded. Conflict between the Communists and Sarekat Islam grows. December 25 PKH joins the Communist International. 1921 June Jong Java congress in Bandung; Sukarno addresses the congress to advocate language reform. Fock is Gov.-Gen. of Nederlands-Indië until 1926. Timorsch Verbond founded. August Tjokroaminoto is arrested. October Sixth national congress of Sarekat Islam forbids SI members to belong to other parties, including PKI. Many Sarekat Islam branches split into “Red” (SI-Merah) factions after Semaun and “White” (SI-Putih) factions after Tjokroaminoto. Semaun leaves for Soviet Union. Tan Malaka tries to heal the split in Sarekat Islam. PKI denounces Tjokroaminoto. Young Sukarno begins studies at Technische Hoogeschool in Bandung. Soeharto born. Hamengkubuwono VIII becomes Sultan of Yogya. December Tan Malaka becomes chairman of the PKI. Street scene in Batavia (Jakarta), 1920s. 1922 Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia or Indonesian Students Association is founded in the Netherlands. Its membership would include Mohammed Hatta, Sutan Sjahrir, Sutomo, Ali Sastroamidjojo, and many others who would be prominent in the independence struggle (and in the government of the Republic of Indonesia in the 1950s). March Tan Malaka is exiled from the Netherlands Indies. April Tjokroaminoto is released from custody pending appeal. Ki Hadjar Dewantoro founds Taman Siswa in Yogya, independent school with no gov support to promote Javanese arts as well as modern education (anti-modernist); invents term “guided democracy”. Indische Vereeniging in the Netherlands changes name to Perhimpunan Indonesia. Mohammed Hatta and Sutan Sjahrir are members, Tan Malaka and Semaun speak to meetings. Semaun returns from the Netherlands. Marah Roesli publishes “Sitti Noerbaja”, first Indonesian novel. Strikes continue. Al-Islam congress is held at Cirebon; heated debates break out between holders of “modernist” and “traditionalist” views on Islam. Pelgrimsordonnantie is passed, beginning government control of the hajj. Modern port facilities open at Belawan to serve northern Sumatra. 1923 February Partai Katolik is founded. Successful Communist led railroad strike; many unions become Communist dominated. February Tjokroaminoto reorganizes Sarekat Islam as the new Partai Sarekat Islam. Communist supporters leave the organization, taking a significant number of the rank-and-file with them; “Red” SI branches become Sarekat Rakyat. Semaun exiled. Tan Malaka is appointed as the Comintern agent for southeast Asia, working out of Canton in China. September 12 Persatuan Islam (or Persis), a hardline modernist group, is founded in Bandung. The young Mohammed Natsir is an early member. Pasteur Institute moves from Batavia to Bandung. Military service is made mandatory for Dutch citizens in the Indies. Prominent Communists in this period included: Sneevliet, a Dutchman, who originally introduced Communism to Indonesia. Tan Malaka who was not an unquestioning supporter of Moscow and Stalin, but was later executed by ABRI in 1949. He was exiled from Indonesia from 1924 to 1944. Musso led the PKI during the 1920s, and again during the 1940s independence struggle. He was a strong supporter of Stalin and the Communist International in Moscow, and spent the years 1936-1948 in the Soviet Union. He was executed by the Republic of Indonesia army in the wake of the Madiun incident of 1948. Semaun who had been an early figure in Sarekat Islam. Darsono who later renounced Communism. 1924 Perserikatan Komunis di Hindia changes to Partai Komunis Indonesia, decides to turn to revolt. Musso joins PKI. “Sarekat Hijau” organized by Dutch, members are pro-Dutch local officials, criminals, police, etc. Dr. Sutomo founds Indonesian Study Club. First airmail service from Batavia to Amsterdam. The flight takes almost two months. Central Malaria Bureau is founded to coordinate eradication programs. In 1924, the Islamic caliphate ended, an event which caused much debate and concern in Islamic communities. Also around this time, the economy in Europe was very poor. The Governor’s Palace at Buitenzorg (now Bogor), flying a Dutch flag. This was used by the Netherlands Indies government from 1870 until 1942. (Years later, Sukarno used it as a Presidential retreat.) 1925 New constitution: Council of the Indies becomes advisory, Volksraad gets limited legislative powers, Governor-General and bureaucracy are unaffected. Chinese are officially defined under “vreemde oosterlingen”. Membership in the Volksraad is set at 60: 30 Dutch, 25 Indonesians, and 5 members of either Arab or Chinese descent. PKI-led strikes fail, Tan Malaka is in Singapore. Sukarno founds pro-independence General Studies Club in Bandung, advocates unity. September 23 Jong Islamieten Bond is founded in Jakarta; members include Haji Agus Salim and Mohammed Natsir. Film censorship is instituted. First commercial radio station in Batavia. December PKI leaders meet at Prambanan to plan open rebellion. Officials of the PKI in Batavia, 1925. 1926 Dutch arrest more PKI members; Musso goes to Singapore. PKI receives instructions from Moscow to start a revolt, then cancels the instructions. Musso keeps the second instructions (the instructions not to revolt) secret. January 31 Committee of Islamic scholars meets in Surabaya to send a delegation to Saudi Arabia to protest conditions for Indonesian pilgrims on the hajj. (This committee would later form the nucleus of Nahdlatul Ulama.) November 12 PKI revolts in Banten, Batavia, Bandung, Padang. PKI declares a republic. Revolt is crushed by the Dutch, who make over 13,000 arrests. Tan Malaka opposes revolt. Sukarno gets engineering degree in Bandung.Sukarno publishes series of articles “Nationalism, Islam and Marxism”, calling for cooperation between the three movements.De Graeff is Gov.-Gen. until 1931. December 31 Kyai Haji Hasjim Asjari founds Nahdlatul Ulama, a Muslim organization dedicated to schools, charity, and economic help. The 1926 unrest was the first of three ill-advised, unsuccessful revolts by the PKI. The second was in 1948 at Madiun, the third was in 1965. After these revolts, Communist activity lessened greatly or went underground. Many leftist leaders, including Tan Malaka and Musso, spent years overseas. Within a few years, the mass movements were gone, and instead the Communist presence consisted of a few cadre who were mostly loyal to orthodox Marxism and Stalin’s Soviet Union. Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo was an early activist for Indonesian independence and helped found the PNI party with Sukarno. 1927 January PKI revolts in West Sumatra are destroyed. February Hatta and others attend anti-colonial convention in Brussels along with many nationalists from Asia and Africa. July 4 Sukarno and Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo found the Perserikatan Nasional Indonesia (PNI). September Hatta, Ali Sastroamidjojo and others in Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia are arrested. Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo is arrested and sent to internal exile on Banda. He remains in exile for 11 years. Netherlands Indies builds Boven Digul prison camp in West Irian to house political prisoners. Anti-narcotics campaign: Netherlands Indies bans the cultivation of coca and hemp. December PPPKI umbrella group of nationalist organizations (Permufakatan Perhimpunan Politik Kebangsaan Indonesia) is organized in Bandung. The Dutch used the communist unrest as an excuse to arrest many Indonesian leaders who were not communists. Sukarno in these days was a strong nationalist. He said that “neither an airplane from Moscow nor a caliph in Istanbul” could help Indonesia win independence–they had to do it themselves. On the other hand, the PPPKI group that Sukarno championed allowed groups with various regional, religious, or political backgrounds to unite around the single issue of Indonesian independence. 100 Gulden Netherlands Indies banknote, 1927, showing a portrait of Jan Pieterszoon Coen. 1928 PNI changes name to Partai Nasional Indonesia, adopts merah-putih flag, Bahasa Indonesia as national language, “Indonesia Raya” by Supratman as national anthem. March Hatta and supporters are acquitted; Hatta’s speeches are convincingly anti-Dutch. October 28 Youth Congress in Batavia adopts “sumpah pemuda”: one nation, one language. Muhammad Yamin writes poems “Indonesia tumpah darahku”. KNILM is founded as official airline of the Netherlands Indies. Perti (Persatuan Tarbiyah Islamiyah) is founded at Bukittingi as an educational organization for traditionalist Minangkabau Muslims. Pakubuwono X of Surakarta poses with Gov.-Gen. de Graeff (center) in 1928. Many people see this time as the real beginning of Indonesian nationalism, the “kebangkitan bangsa” or “national awakening”. 1929 August Netherlands Indies government warns PNI members to stop their activities. Indonesians gain a majority of seats in the Volksraad, still only an advisory body. Dutch restore former rulers of Bali to local self-rule under Dutch authority, in an elaborate ceremony at Besakih. December 29 Sukarno and followers are arrested at Yogya. They are held in prison at Bandung. Supratman wrote “Indonesia Raya”, which was adopted by the PNI in 1928 as the national anthem for the future Indonesia, and is still Indonesia’s anthem today. 1930 Muhammad H Thamrin sets up nationalist faction in Volksraad; wants autonomy. Netherlands Indies government begins limited production of light aircraft at Andir airfield in Bandung (model AVRO-AL), using a Canadian design and local wood supplies. June Pangeran Surjodiningrat founds Pakempalan Kawula Ngayogyakarta as a cultural organization for the people of Yogya, which becomes very popular. August 18 Trial of Sukarno opens in Bandung. He gives rousing speeches in court. Japanese found Borneo Oil Company. Eruption of Gunung Merapi kills 1300. Jamiyatul Washliyah is founded with strong Karo Batak participation. 22 December Sukarno is sentenced to four years in prison for nationalist activities. PNI is declared dissolved by the Netherlands Indies government. Around this time the effects of the worldwide economic depression began to hit. Exports of sugar and other cash crops to industrial nations dropped, and Japanese imports grew. There was some growth of industry in the cities in the 1930s as well, which was supported by the Netherlands Indies government as a counter to Japanese imports. 1931 Perhimpunan Indonesia is taken over by Communists; Sjahrir and Hatta are expelled. April 25 PNI votes to dissolve itself. Partai Indonesia or Partindo is organized as a replacement four days later. Some PNI members, including Hatta, are disappointed. December Sjahrir founds Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia with Hatta (”PNI-Baru”). Sukarno released by de Graeff. King of Bone is restored by the Dutch to govern with local self-rule. De Jonge is Gov.-Gen. until 1936. Netherlands Indies government tightens press censorship. Ong Hok Liong founds the Bentoel cigarette company. December 31 Sukarno gains early release from prison in Bandung. Some important Dutch figures in Batavia were actually sympathetic to Sukarno during this period, including Van Mook, who wrote an anonymous newspaper article criticizing the treatment of Sukarno by the government. (Van Mook later served as Lieutenant-Governor of the Indies from 1945-48, during the independence struggle.) “Ladang”: land being cleared for slash-and-burn cultivation near Palembang, 1930s. 1932 Sukarno joins Partindo; interest in Partindo rises. August Hatta returns from the Netherlands. Mohammed Natsir, age 24, takes charge of new Persatuan Islam schools, writes that Islam must be the basis of the new Indonesia. Dutch require independent schools to get permission from the government to operate; factions in the Volksraad unite against the idea. Zelfbesturen”Zelfbesturen” were areas where the Netherlands Indies government allowed local rulers to govern the internal affairs of their lands. Local rulers did not have power beyond their borders, and they generally did not have jurisdiction over Europeans or Chinese living in their territories. 1933 February 5 Mutiny of Dutch and Indonesian sailors on the Dutch naval vessel Zeven Provincien. The mutiny was due to unhappiness with low wages, but the Netherlands Indies government views it as a political rebellion. Netherlands Indies suppresses independent schools and political leaders in Minangkabau. August Sukarno, Hatta, Sjahrir are arrested. Sukarno is exiled to Ende on Flores without a trial. Oost-Indische Leger is renamed KNIL (Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger). Meetings of the PPPKI umbrella group are banned. 1934 Dutch begin protectionist drive to keep out less expensive Japanese products in favor of more expensive Dutch ones. Dutch pressure PKN to renounce overt political activity. February Hatta and Sjahrir are arrested and sent to the Boven Digul concentration camp in West Irian. Dutch ban congress of Partindo. Nahdlatul Ulama youth wing, Ansor, is founded. Tjokroaminoto passes away. Around this time, there was a political crackdown on fascists and communists in the Netherlands, along with the attacks on nationalists in Indonesia. 1935 Al-Ittihadiah (modernist Islamic association) founded at Medan. Nahdlatul Wathan, an organization for Islamic education, is founded on Lombok. Nahdlatul Ulama issues a ruling that the Netherlands Indies is a nation where Islam can be practiced, and should be defended against Japan. December Budi Utomo and Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia combine to form Partai Indonesia Raya or Parindra. Membership includes Thamrin and Dr. Sutomo; it also includes some pro-Japan members. The new party calls for independence through cooperation with the Dutch. Street vendor in Batavia, 1935. 1936 Van Starkenborgh is named Governor-General; holds title at least until 1945. Hatta and Sjahrir are moved to Banda. July “Sutarjo Petition” is published, calling for independence for Indonesia within ten years. September 29 Volksraad votes to support petition for autonomy for Indonesia within the constitution of the Netherlands. First becaks in Batavia. November Partindo disbands. Dutch geologists discover evidence of mineral wealth–iron, copper, silver, and gold–in West Irian. Dutch pilots of KNILM, the colonial airline, in the late 1930s. Indonesians had almost no opportunity to rise to jobs at this level. In 1937, a group of young Indonesian men in Bandung led by Tossin, and supported by a local businessman, built a homemade airplane called the PK-KKH. In the face of heavy skepticism, the plane safely made a transcontinental flight to the Netherlands, China and back. Stacks of rice ready to be threshed and milled, Lampung, 1930s. In the 1930s, there was increased promotion of agricultural techniques to increase yield and control soil erosion, particularly on Java, where larger populations needed better food supplies.By this time, half of the agricultural exports of Indonesia came from Indonesian-owned lands, rather than Dutch or other foreign-owned plantations. In 1900, almost none of the agricultural exports came from Indonesian-owned lands. 1937 May 24 Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia founded: Gerindo. It includes Yamin and Amir Sjarifuddin. As an organization it supports independence, but tends to cooperate with the Dutch against the Japanese. September 21 MIAI founded: Majlis Islam A’laa Indonesia, umbrella group for cooperation between Muhammadiyah, Nahdlatul Ulama, Persatuan Islam, and other Islamic groups. December 17 Antara news service founded. Javanese settlers boarding a bus to a new transmigration colony in Lampung, late 1930s. After about 1936, the Netherlands Indies government increased its sponsorship of transmigration activity dramatically in an attempt to relieve population densities on Java and Madura. Propaganda booklets were published and distributed, free films were shown in villages, and the programs were extended to include Sulawesi and Kalimantan as well as Sumatra. Despite the extra efforts, the number of transmigrants leaving Java in the 1930s equalled less than 10% of the increase in population during the same time.”Colonization Land is Rich”A propaganda postcard distributed to transmigrants by the Netherlands Indies government. The settlers were supposed to write messages back to their home villages on Java telling about the “good life” in the new transmigration colonies. By 1940 there were about 200,000 Javanese living in transmigration colonies. 1938 Sukarno, still under Dutch custody, is moved to Bengkulu. First outsiders reach Baliem Valley on Irian Jaya. Dutch hold council of Tapanuli to support Batak local rulers. Netherlands Indies institutes “adat law” in Minangkabau and Banjarmasin. Moscow tells PKI to stop anti-Dutch activities. Persatuan Arab Indonesia formed from existing Arab Muslim organizations. November 16 Netherlands government rejects the 1936 autonomy petition for Indonesia. Gov.-Gen. A.W.L. Tjarda van Starkenborgh-Stachouwer, the last full Governor-General of the Netherlands Indies. (Van Mook would only be named Lieutenant Governor after the war.) Van Starkenborgh was forced to surrender the Indies to Japanese forces in March 1942, and was sent to Korea as a prisoner of war. By the late 1930s, the Dutch were building up their defenses at Surabaya, Amboina, Cilacap and other bases, in apprehension of Japanese expansion in the area. Yet, the Dutch resisted arming Indonesians for defense purposes. 1939 Pakubuwono X of Surakarta passes away, Pakubuwono XI is new Susuhunan. Japanese occupy Spratly Islands. May PUSA (Persatuan Ulama Seluruh Aceh) is founded by Muhammad Da’ud Beureu’eh to coordinate anti-Dutch activities in Aceh. Gabungan Politik Indonesia or GAPI is formed, an umbrella group of nationalist organizations. Thamrin is a major promoter. Kartosuwirjo and followers split from Partai Sarekat Islam, taking much of its support in West Java with them. December GAPI organizes Kongres Rakyat Indonesia, a large representative meeting in Batavia, which presents the demand for full elected parliament for the Indies. Pakubuwono X was a huge man, very much loved by the people of Surakarta, who predicted that after his rule there would be no more like him. Telegraph office in Batavia, late 1930s. 1940 February Dutch again reject autonomy for the Indies. February 13 Japan repudiates treaty of arbitration with the Netherlands. March 18 Hamengkubuwono IX becomes Sultan of Yogya. May Netherlands falls to Germany, Dutch government flees to London. Courtesy————————————————-Islam Muslim Islamic banking finance insurance marriage clothing fashion software qurban Makkah & Madinah.

1830 to 1910: Imperialism and Modernisation1830 Johannes van den Bosch arrives as the new Governor-General, begins the “cultuurstelsel” or “culture system”. Forced cultivation of indigo is introduced in the Priangan. First steamboat arrives in the Indies. Nederlands Zendelinggenootschap (Dutch Missionary Society) begins offering education to “native” children. December 4 Van den Bosch officially organizes the Dutch forces from the Java War into the Oost-Indische Leger, or “East Indies Army” (later KNIL). Help the People of Aceh 1831 Nederlands-Indië government manages a balanced budget. Dutch forces fighting the Padri in Sumatra reach the Bonjol area. U.S. ships shell coastal villages in Aceh in an action against piracy. Gov.-Gen. Johannes van den Bosch It was only after the Java War that the Dutch began to think about a real empire in the Indies. From 1830 to the end of the century, the Dutch began a drive to take complete control of the areas from Aceh to New Guinea, and to extract as much profit as possible from the valuable areas, such as the Priangan area of West Java. Revenues from the Indies paid for as much as one-third of the Dutch government’s budget in the mid-1800s. These monies helped to finance the industrialization and development of the Netherlands in the 1800s. The burden fell especially upon the Netherlands Indies, since the Dutch had lost many of their other colonies to the British during the Napoleonic wars (including South Africa and Sri Lanka), and since Belgium with its business and industry broke away from the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830. The government was called the Netherlands Indies, or Nederlands-Indië in Dutch, or Hindia Belanda in Indonesian today. 1832 Dutch depose Sultan of Jailolo and take control of Halmahera. Under the “culture system”, Javanese were required to grow a certain amount of crops for export–more coffee, sugar, spices and indigo, but less rice to feed the people. The system worked without great controversy for the first few years. About 1845, a series of poor harvests led to greater poverty and even famine on Java–famine that was aggravated because the best lands were being used for tobacco, sugar or coffee instead of rice, and because the land in general had been exhausted by overproduction. Van den Bosch had specified that local farmers should be given leeway to grow their own food, but colonial officials under him ignored these orders in pursuit of ever larger cash crops. The products of the culture system were sold through the Nederlandse Handel-Maatschappij, run by the Netherlands government, and the profits were kept by the Netherlands. The King of the Netherlands owned significant shares in the NHM, and gained an extra fortune from its profits. (The NHM survives today as the Algemene Bank Nederland.) The Netherlands Indies nearly went bankrupt in the 1820s; after van den Bosch, it returned large budget surpluses to the Netherlands throughout the 1830s (and into the 1870s). 1833 January Minangkabau villages around Bonjol rise up in popular rebellion; Dutch troops in the area are massacred. Padri war heats up; Dutch seal off the coast. Sentot fights on Dutch side, but was probably not pro-Dutch in his heart. Dutch place Sentot under watch in Bengkulu (until 1855). Sultan of Jambi asks for Dutch help against Palembang. A traditional Minangkabau house in an old photo. 1834 Dutch force Sultan Muhammad Fahruddin of Jambi to recognize Dutch sovereignty. Portuguese government expels Dominican friars from East Timor. 1836 Dutch abandon Fort Du Bus on Irian. 1837 Bonjol in Minangkabau finally falls to the Dutch in the Padri War. Tuanku Imam Bonjol surrenders and is sent into exile. Tuanku Imam Bonjol was one of the main leaders in the Padri war. Other fighters against the Dutch included the “Harimau Nan Selapan” or “eight tigers”, led by Haji Miskin. 1838 Dutch victory at Daludalu ends the Padri war in Minangkabau. Direct Dutch rule in Minangkabau is enforced (adat law and nobility appear pro-Dutch, Islamic leaders appear anti-Dutch). Dutch expedition against Flores. Bone renews Treaty of Bungaya; fighting against the Dutch subsides. Dutch establish presence on Nias. Sulaiman inherits rule of Aceh, but Tuanku Ibrahim rules as guardian, ruling Aceh until 1870. Mataram kingdom on Lombok takes control of the whole island, plus Karangasem on Bali. 1839 Danish merchant Mads Lange opens a trading post at Kuta on Bali. Dutch Imperialism: 1815-1870The Dutch fought two major wars in the 1820s. They still did not control many areas in their imagined sphere of influence, including Aceh, Bali, much of Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara.Leaders among the Indonesians included:Pattimura in Ambon in 1817 Pangeran Diponegoro in the Java War, 1825-1830 Imam Tuanku Bonjol in the Padri War in the 1830s 1841 The rajas of Badung, Klungkung, Karangasem and Buleleng on Bali sign treaties recognizing Dutch sovereignty; rajas to keep internal power. James Brooke begins creating private empire for himself in Sarawak. 1842 Dutch withdraw from east coast of Sumatra north of Palembang due to British worries. The nobility in Surakarta is arrested under suspicion of inciting revolt. 1843 Raja of Lombok accepts Dutch sovereignty. Famine in Cirebon. By this time, there was a movement of people out of the Priangan, Cirebon, and nearby areas of West Java towards areas that were less strictly controlled by the culture system. Local bupatis and Dutch officials were instructed to send these internal refugees home whenever possible. In the 1840s, as much as two-thirds of the money earned by a Javanese farmer on his crops could be taken by taxes. 1844 Rajas of Buleleng and Karangasem are dissatisfied with Dutch, and refuse to ratify treaties. 1845 Vanilla industry started on Java. 1846 June Netherlands Indies force attacks Buleleng; other rajas secretly support the anti-Dutch forces. Palace at Singaraja is destroyed. Raja of Buleleng signs a treaty of submission. Netherlands Indies bases a garrison at Singaraja. Netherlands Indies expedition against Flores. Typhoid epidemic in Java. Netherlands Indies takes control of Samarinda. First commercial coal mine is opened at Martapura, South Kalimantan. Revolt in Banten. It was traditional on Bali for shipwrecks to be salvaged by the local population. The Dutch considered this to be looting and theft. The cultural clash led to continual political and military conflict between the Netherlands Indies government and the rajas on Bali. 1847 Dutch military expedition to Nias. 1848 June Netherlands Indies sends a military force to Bali in response to conflicts over the enforcement of treaties with the local rajas. The force is defeated by a Balinese force under Gusti Ketut Jilantik at Jagaraga, and withdraws from the island. New constitution in Netherlands: Dutch States-General has some control over colonial affairs. Revised commercial, civil and criminal codes for the Netherlands Indies are introduced, applicable to people of European descent only. Demonstration in Batavia, led by Baron van Hoevell (a Dutch Reformed minister), petitions the King of the Netherlands for freedom of the press, public secondary schools, and representation for the Netherlands Indies in the States General. Regency schools, for the education and training of the children of local rulers and nobles, begin operations. The Dutch had some concern that if they did not demonstrate control over Bali, the British might move in and take it for themselves. 1849 April Major Netherlands Indies military force is sent to Bali. Gusti Ketut Jilantik falls in battle. Netherlands Indies takes control of Buleleng and the north coast of Bali. May Netherlands Indies forces enter southern Bali for the first time, moving through Karangasem and Klungkung to put down resistance. The raja of Lombok attacks and takes Karangasem. Dutch take full control in Palembang. 1850 Dutch begin missionary work among Bataks of north Sumatra. Famine in Central Java. Dutch purchase the remaining Portuguese posts on Flores. The Netherlands Indies government prohibited Catholic missionaries from visiting the Bataks on Sumatra or the Toraja on Sulawesi. Only Protestant missionaries were allowed in those areas. 1851 “Dokter-Jawa” school founded in Gambir, Batavia. Billiton Maatschappij begins tin mining on Belitung. Many Chinese laborers are imported. 1852 Aceh sends an emissary to Napoleon III of France. Cola trees are introduced on Java. Dutch end the tax on the hajj. 1853 Dutch begin administering north Bali. Mangkunegara IV takes his title in Surakarta. A local ruler on Madura, about 1853. 1854 Netherlands government issues a constitutional reform for the Netherlands Indies (”Regeeringsreglement”). Local rulers in the Indies are to continue to have traditional powers over their subjects, ruling on behalf of the Dutch. A strict separation betweens Europeans and “Inlanders” is recognized in the law. Governor-General of the Netherlands Indies receives the power to exile anyone without appeal or review. Aceh establishes authority over Langkat, Deli and Serdang on east coast of Sumatra (”pepper ports”). Introduction of cinchona (quinine) cultivation to the Priangan, at Cibodas, West Java. 1855 Hamengkubuwono VI becomes Sultan of Yogya. Dutch military expedition to Nias. Dutch extend control over western Kalimantan. 1856 Regulation on Publications gives the Governor-General authority to conduct prepublication censorship of the press without appeal or review. March Eduard Douwes Dekker is dismissed from his government post in West Java after accusing local bupatis of corruption. (Later, under the pen name “Multatuli”, he writes the novel “Max Havelaar”, exposing conditions in colonial Java to readers in the Netherlands.) Dutch military expedition to Flores. Eduard Douwes Dekker, or “Multatuli” 1857 Dutch intervene in succession to Sultanate of Banjarmasin, support Tamjidillah over more popular Hidayatullah. First telegraph line is laid from Batavia to Buitenzorg. Netherlands Indies 1/2 cent from 1857 showing both Malay/Arabic script and “huruf jawa” Javanese characters. 1858 Dutch expedition against south Sulawesi. Ratu Taha Saifuddin of Jambi refuses treaty with Dutch, flees into jungle with pusaka (emblems or heirlooms of his house), fights until 1904. Dutch take Siak in north Sumatra by treaty, and move troops in to prevent British adventurers from gaining a foothold there. The boundary of Siak is defined to include Langkat and Deli, infringing on Acehnese territory. Nederlands-Indië government running at a deficit due to military expenses. Pakubuwono VIII becomes Susuhunan of Solo. 1859 Banjarmasin War led by Pangeran Antasari; Dutch withdraw support for Tamjidillah, send him to Bogor. Portuguese sign accord with the Dutch: Portuguese abandon outposts and claims on Flores and Solor to the Dutch, and retain possession of Portuguese Timor. Division between West and East Timor is set. Dutch government bans slavery in the Netherlands Indies. Dutch military expedition to Bone to depose Queen Basse Kajuara. Telegraph cable is laid from Batavia to Singapore. 1860 “Max Havelaar” is published. Dutch open Savu. Dutch abolish the Sultanate of Banjarmasin, and enforce direct colonial rule. Dutch extend protectorate over Wajo in Sulawesi. “Max Havelaar” exposed the abuses of Dutch colonial rule on Java, and put political pressure on the Netherlands government to make reforms in the colonies. 1861 Pakubuwono IX becomes Susuhunan of Solo. German Protestant missionaries begin working around Lake Toba in northern Sumatra. 1862 Hidayatullah surrenders in Banjarmasin, and is exiled to Java. Antasari dies of smallpox, guerilla war continues. Compulsory pepper cultivation ends. 1863 Dutch military expedition to Nias. British send gunboats to Langkat and other “pepper ports” on Sumatra. July 1 Slavery officially ends in the Netherlands Indies. Tobacco cultivation is introduced to Northern Sumatra. Fransen van de Putte, a former plantation owner on Java and opponent of the culture system, becomes Netherlands Minister of Colonies. Compulsory clove and nutmeg cultivation ends. In 1863, the government of the Netherlands used profits from the exploitation of the Netherlands Indies to compensate former slaveholders in Suriname in South America, after slavery was abolished there. 1864 April 1 First Netherlands Indies postage stamp is issued. Dutch experiment with rubber cultivation in Java and Sumatra. Dutch claim Mentawai Islands. The last Sultan of Siak abdicates. First Netherlands Indies postage stamp, 1864. 1865 Compulsory cultivation of tea, cinnamon, cochineal and indigo ends. Dutch introduce tobacco to Deli and northern Sumatra. Dutch institute direct rule in the Sultanate of Asahan in northern Sumatra and remove the Sultan to Riau. New forestry laws and regulations are introduced. The Raja of Buleleng on Bali, in an 1865 photo. 1866 Compulsory tobacco cultivation ends. Netherlands Indies institutes direct rule on Sumba. 1867 Gunung Merapi erupts near Yogya; 1000 are killed. “Accountability Law” prescribes that the finances of the Netherlands Indies should be separate from those of the Netherlands. Netherlands Indies Department of Education is organized. Mangkunegara IV is remembered for his promotion of traditional Javanese culture, philosophy, and mysticism, especially in his literary works. 1868 Dutch tighten control over Bengkulu. 1869 1/3 of the population of Savu dies from smallpox. Aceh appeals to the Ottoman Empire for protection. Deli Maatschappij is founded by private investors. In 1869, the Suez Canal opened, which greatly reduced the travel time and effort between Europe and Asia by sea, and gave places such as Aceh much more strategic importance. 1870 Minahasa area comes under direct Dutch rule. Sultan Mahmud Syah rules Aceh until 1874. Sugar Act begins a period of agricultural reform. Coffee blight afflicts Java. Regular steamship service to the Netherlands through the Suez canal begins. Street vendor in Batavia selling soup, about 1870. 1871 Agrarian Act encourages privatization of agriculture, starts to dismantle many practices of the “culture system”. Smallpox kills 18,000 in Bali. Telegraph cable is laid from Banyuwangi, Java to Australia. November Treaty of Sumatra between British and Dutch: Dutch give Gold Coast to British; Dutch may send contract labor from India to Dutch Guiana; Dutch get free hand in Sumatra, British and Dutch both have trade rights in Aceh. Effect of this treaty: there is no more foreign objection to the Dutch taking Aceh. A Bugis house, rebuilt for the Colonial Exposition in Amsterdam, 1883. 1872 Batak war begins in north Sumatra, lasting until 1895. 1873 January 25 Emissary from Aceh holds talks with the American consul in Singapore, but USA help is rejected by Washington. The Dutch respond with war. March 26 Dutch bombard Banda Aceh. April 8 Dutch land troops at Banda Aceh. April 25 Acehnese force the Dutch to withdraw. Sultan of Kutai signs a treaty recognizing the Dutch. Assam tea plants from India are introduced to replace Chinese tea plants, which had been disappointing. Tea production starts to rise. First railways are built on Java. November 11 Dutch invade Aceh again, and maintain their positions, but would sustain heavy losses due to disease. The Dutch would waste over 30 years trying to take full control of Aceh, and would never fully succeed. 1874 January 24 Acehnese abandon Banda Aceh and retreat to the hills. Dutch announce that Sultanate of Aceh is ended. Sultan Mahmud Syah of Aceh dies in the jungle; Sultan Ibrahim Mansur Syah heads sultanate in hills until 1907. Teuku Umar of the Acehnese nobility leads the Acehnese forces. Dutch expedition to Flores. Dutch send an official to the Aru Islands. Teuku Umar In the mid-1880s, and again in the mid-1890s, Teuku Umar would briefly switch sides in the Aceh war. This sort of behavior lessened the reputation of the nobility in Aceh among the common fighters. 1875 The Netherlands Indies, Australia, and Germany set a boundary between their claims on New Guinea. Palace guards for the Sultan of Ternate, 1875. 1876 Introduction of rubber cultivation to Java. Baba Hassan leads revolt on Halmahera. 1877 Hamengkubuwono VII becomes Sultan of Yogya. After this point, the Nederlands-Indië government operates at a loss. 1878 Compulsory sugar and coffee cultivation starts to be eliminated. Expedition under Gen. Van der Heijden burns 500 villages in Aceh to the ground. Teungku Cik di Tiro, an Islamic ulama, starts leading the resistance in Aceh. Teungku Cik di Tiro 1879 R. A. Kartini born at Jepara. Coca cultivation is introduced on Java. Raden Adjeng KartiniR. A. Kartini is remembered today for her collected letters, works of high literary quality. Far ahead of her time, Kartini was an early advocate both for Indonesia and for the interests of women everywhere. 1880 Rail line completed from Batavia to Bandung. Koelie Ordonnantie (”Coolie Ordinance”) specifies the law of employment contracts: employers must provide adequate housing and medical care, workers are bound to a plantation only for the duration of the contract. Contracts must be signed before a magistrate, and can be disputed in court. First condensed milk in cans is imported from Australia. The legal reforms of this period meant that feudal rights and privileges of the nobility were cancelled. The average person won a few freedoms, but many changes simply meant that power passed from traditional rulers to Dutch officials. 1881 Minahasa chiefs are made salaried officials of the Netherlands Indies. Mangkunegara IV passes away. In the early 1880s, a resident of Kudus named Haji Jamahri took up the habit of mixing cloves into a hand-rolled cigarette to relieve the symptoms of asthma. This was the origin of the “kretek” or clove cigarette. Commercial manufacture of kretek, however, would not start in earnest until the 1930s. 1882 Netherlands Indies institutes direct rule in Buleleng and Jembrana on Bali. Netherlands Indies takes control of Karangasem and Gianyar on Bali. Bali and Lombok become a single Residency; the rajas of south Bali are unhappy, but continue to fight among themselves. Aru and Tanimbar islands come under Dutch administration. August 6 Tjokroaminoto born. Sugar blight hits Java. Dutch military expedition on Seram. Oil found around Kutai on Kalimantan. Islamic courts are given limited authority on Java (”Priesterraden”). Their jurisdiction is limited to family law. 1883 Sisingamangaraja XII is expelled from the Batak region. Krakatau erupts; 36,000 are killed in West Java and Lampung. A. J. Zijlker gets approval from Dutch to start drilling for oil in Langkat, north Sumatra. Revolt in favor of Pangeran Suryengalaga fails in Yogya. Musicians from Java at the Colonial Exposition in Amsterdam, 1883. 1884 Guerilla war heats up in Aceh. Dutch build “Geconcentreerde Linie” in Aceh: a series of 16 forts designed to contain guerillas. Dutch institute direct rule in Deli. Communications services are consolidated by the government into PTT (Post Telegraaf Telefoon). Dutch-led troops in Aceh stand over the bodies of guerilla fighters. Many of the common soldiers in the Netherlands Indies forces were not Dutch, but were recruited from Java, Sulawesi, and other parts of Indonesia. 1885 Sultan of Asahan is returned from exile to his territory to rule for the Dutch. Dutch institute direct rule in Madura. Persons of Chinese descent in the Netherlands Indies are classified as “Europeans” for purposes of commercial law only. 1886 Modern harbor is built at Tanjung Priok, Batavia (today’s Jakarta). 1887 Sultans of Madura have been reduced to bupati status. Economic depression in Java. 1888 Earthquake hits Bali. Dutch Resident in Surakarta takes control of the finances of the Mangkunegara house. Revolt in Banten led by the Qadiriyya order. North Borneo (Sabah) becomes a British protectorate. Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij is founded as the major inter-island shipping and passenger line. On Java in this period, there were over 80 local rulers keeping the title of “Sultan”, “Susuhunan” or “Bupati” ruling in theory, while the Dutch held the real power. The status of Sabah or North Borneo went back and forth between 1865 and 1888, as different colonial interests bought and sold claims to the territory. The eventual winner was the British North Borneo company, but the confusion over claims to the area would reappear during the creation of Malaysia in the 1960s. 1890 Zijlker founds company that would become Royal Dutch Shell. Dutch expedition against Flores. Netherlands Indies introduces a property tax. 1891 Mengwi in Bali is taken over by Badung. Naqshbandiyya rebel in Lombok against Mataram-Balinese rule; Dutch intervene. First contract workers leave Java for Surinam in South America. A traditional masjid in Aceh from the late 1800s. 1893 Pakubuwono X becomes Susuhunan of Solo.”First Class” schools for native Indonesians are established. 1894 Final Dutch intervention in Lombok is successful; nobility goes down in puputan; Karangasem becomes Dutch dependency. “Batak War” ends. Rebellion against Portuguese in East Timor. Netherlands Indies organizes a state-run opium monopoly to control the opium trade (Opiumregie). A “puputan” was a suicide charge by Balinese nobility to defend their honor when all else was lost. The families of the court would put on ceremonial clothes, arm themselves with false weapons and walk directly into enemy gunfire. Reports of the terrible events on Lombok reached back to the Netherlands, and caused very different reactions in different segments of society. The popular press promoted war fever, and over 3000 army volunteers agreed to go to the Indies and fight for the Netherlands crown. However, other observers were shocked, and their reactions helped start the movement towards moderate reform in the colonial government that would eventually be known as the “Ethical Policy”. 1895 Jami’at Khair founded; organization dedicated to Arabic education. Portuguese Timor, formerly administered from Macao, receives its own administration. British-Dutch agreement sets the boundary between their claims on Irian (New Guinea). 1896 King Chulalongkorn of Thailand makes a state visit to the Netherlands Indies. Dutch go on attack against guerillas in Aceh with special forces (Korps Marechaussee). 1898 Dutch begin exploring Irian Jaya. Van Heutsz becomes Dutch Governor of Aceh. His advisor Snouck Hurgronje introduces “Korte Verklaring”, a short treaty recognizing Dutch rule, to replace older complicated agreements with local rulers; Dutch pursue alliance with uleebalangs against Islamic leaders. June Van Heutsz sends a successful Dutch expedition against Pidie, Aceh. Snouck Hurgronje studied Islam in Indonesia as an observer, and was an advisor to Van Heutsz and other government officials in the Netherlands Indies. In 1885, he travelled secretly to Mecca, and reported that at that time, there was a significant number of Malays and Indonesians living there. Starting about this time, the Dutch began to encourage Islamic worship and practice, as long as politics were not involved. The goal was to channel Islamic enthusiasm away from politics and nationalism. 1899 R. A. Kartini begins letter-writing career. Pesantren Tebuireng, a famous Islamic school, is founded at Jombang, East Java. Teuku Umar is killed during a Dutch ambush. Van Deventer, a colonial reformer, publishes “Een Eereschuld”, demanding that monies collected in the past from the Netherlands Indies be restituted to the Indies to help pay off the rising colonial debt. Dutch Imperialism: 1870-1910During this period the Dutch tried to take complete control of all the areas they claimed. This was the era of “high imperialism”, when powers such as Britain and France were facing competition from new colonial powers such as Germany and Italy, and most unclaimed parts of Africa, Asia and the Pacific were being taken by one power before another could get an opportunity. The “Netherlands Indies” were vital to the Dutch economy: the profits from coffee, tobacco, oil, and other products helped finance the industrialization of the Netherlands. 1900 Raja of Gianyar on Bali submits to Dutch authority. Upper schools at Bandung, Magelang and Probolinggo reorganized to train Javanese candidates for local civil service. Traditional warriors on Nias, 1900. 1901 Jambi placed under control of Dutch Resident of Palembang during succession question and related unrest. Zijlker’s Royal Dutch oil company expands to Kalimantan. Dutch place a garrison on the Mentawai Islands. June 6 Sukarno is born. Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands announces “Ethical Policy” towards the Indies. Europeans in the Indies, who controlled the economy and government, paid only 20% of the tax revenues of the Indies. Most of the tax burden still fell on native Indonesians, in spite of the dismantlement of the culture system. These revenues were used, among other things, to finance Dutch military conquests in the outer islands. But it was not enough. By this time, the Dutch government was sending more money to support the Netherlands Indies than it was collecting from the Indies in revenues. Most of the cash flow from the Indies to the Netherlands after 1900 was in the hands of private businesses. 1902 Dutch end restrictions on the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). 1903 Sultan of Aceh, Tuanku Daud Syah, surrenders to the Dutch, but keeps secret contact with guerillas. Netherlands Indies begins opening MULO schools for elementary education. Decentralization Act gives a small number of seats in local and provincial governments to natives of the Indies. First elections ever on Java are held. Netherlands Indies treasury gets a treasury separate from the home treasury in the Netherlands. Van Heutsz surveys troops in the field in Aceh.Thirty years of war in Aceh cost 60,000 Acehnese lives, plus over 2,000 Dutch soldiers killed in battle, and over 10,000 Dutch soldiers dead from disease. Another 25,000 forced laborers under the Dutch died in Aceh in this period. 1904 Van Heutsz, recently military Governor of Aceh, becomes Governor-General (until 1909). Taha of Jambi is killed by the Dutch. May The ship “Sri Koemala” is wrecked off Sanur, Bali. Locals salvage the wreck; the ship’s owners demand reparations from the Netherlands Indies government. Relations between the Netherlands Indies and the Raja of Badung on Bali worsen considerably as a result. Netherlands Indies military expedition takes control of the Batak region of Sumatra. An expedition under Capt. Van Daalen to the uplands of Aceh kills over 3000 villagers, including over 1000 women and children. Netherlands government starts a series of grants and loan repayment programs for the Netherlands Indies. Dewi Sartika founds Sekolah Isteri (Schools for Women). Van Heutsz as Governor-General. 1905 January Dutch begin five months of military operations on Kalimantan. Dutch send a military force against a rebellion on Ceram. August Dutch forces land at Pare Pare. Major Dutch advance on Sulawesi; Bugis, Makasar, Toraja areas are taken for good. Ruler of Bone is deposed. Acehnese resistance contacts Japanese consul in Singapore for help. Dutch occupy Mentawai islands. First trade union is founded for railway workers. October 16 Sarekat Dagang Islamiyah founded by Kyai Haji Samanhudi, originally to look after the interests of Muslim batik producers in Surakarta. Municipal councils set up at Batavia and Bandung. Netherlands Indies government sponsors a community of transplanted Javanese farmers in Lampung: first example of transmigrasi. 1906 September 15 Major Dutch advance on Bali begins; Netherlands Indies fleet anchors off Sanur. September 16 Netherlands Indies forces invade at Sanur. September 20 Dutch naval force shells Denpasar. Nobility of Badung commits suicide in a puputan, marching down the main street of Denpasar. Over 3600 are killed. September 23 Dutch advance on Tabanan, Bali. Raja of Tabanan offers to surrender on condition that he be allowed to retain his title and lands. The Dutch resident takes the Raja into custody until he can receive a reply from the Netherlands Indies government in Batavia. The Raja of Tabanan commits suicide while in custody. Rubber production takes off in Sumatra with new plant varieties. Dutch take direct control of Sumba. Dutch establish a protectorate over Berau in east Kalimantan. Postpublication censorship is introduced: all publications must be submitted to a censor for review within 24 hours of release. 1907 Dutch military puts down rebellion in Flores, taking complete control. Unrest is finally put down in Jambi. Aceh guerillas attack Dutch in Banda Aceh. King Sisingamangaraja XII of the Bataks revolts against the Dutch, and is shot in the conflict. Netherlands Indies introduces a tax on businesses. Zijlker’s Royal Dutch oil company merges with Shell Transport and Trading to become Royal Dutch Shell. Dutch send police to the Tanimbar Islands to stop intertribal conflict. New education program aims to offer 3-year schools for children in the general population. 1908 Klungkung revolts against the Dutch; nobility commits suicide by puputan to preserve their honor. Dutch intervene in local conflicts on Sumbawa, take tighter control. Butung comes under direct Dutch rule. VSTP (rail workers union) founded, accepts Indonesian members. May 20 Budi Utomo is founded among upper-class Javanese students in Jakarta, including the future Dr. Sutomo and Cipto Mangunkusumo. October Budi Utomo holds congress in Yogya. Cipto Mangunkusumo leaves the organization. Indische Vereeniging founded for Indonesian students in the Netherlands. Minor uprising in Minangkabau is suppressed. Netherlands Indies introduces income tax. Budi Utomo was a less political organization, primarily devoted to the promotion of Javanese culture. It’s interest was limited to Javanese culture. 1909 Tjokroaminoto rises to leadership of Sarekat Dagang Islamiyah.Putri Hindia, a publication for women, is founded.Dutch consolidate control over Ceram.Dutch establish control on Buru. Uleebalangs, or traditional aristocracy of Aceh, about 1910. The uleebalangs would develop a reputation for collaborating with the Dutch; after World War II, many were massacred. 1910 Islamic resistance in Aceh is decimated. Jami’at Khair replaced by Al-Irsyad (Jamiat Islam al Irsyad al Arabia), organization for Arab Muslims in Indonesia. Rebellion in East Timor under Dom Boaventura. Ratulangie founds Perserikatan Minahasa, social organization for Minahasans. Dutch expedition to Komodo reports on Komodo dragons to Europe for the first time. 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1800 to 1830: Chaos and Resistance1800 VOC formally dissolved on January 1; properties revert to Dutch government. Sultan of the Kraton Kanoman in Cirebon is banished to Ambon by the Dutch. A low-level rebellion breaks out under Bagus Rangen. Help the People of Aceh During these times, the Netherlands was allied to or occupied by Napoleon’s France. Until Daendels arrived, not all Dutch officials in the Indies approved of the government in Amsterdam. Around this time, many ports and markets that had been monopolized by the VOC were opened to free trade. This turned out to be profitable for the local government, which then allowed the Netherlands Indies officials to be more independent of the Napoleonic government in Amsterdam (until events of war reduced trade around 1807-1808). 1801 British take control of the Minahasa region, remaining until 1816. 1802 Melaka and Maluku are returned from British to Dutch control by the Treaty of Amiens. Dutch begin sending military reinforcements to Java. 1803 Dutch government (Batavian Republic) issues colonial charter making the Netherlands Indies government responsible to the Netherlands (unlike the VOC). Three pilgrims from Minangkabau return home after travelling to Mecca for the hajj, and encountering advocates of the Wahhabi movement that was gaining strength in Arabia and had occupied Mecca itself. The three pilgrims are called “Padri” after the port of Pedir (or Pidie) in Aceh, where people from that area started their hajj journey. The Padri movement begins to grow in the Minangkabau area, promoting more orthodox Islam as opposed to traditional local practices. British surrender Ambon to the Dutch. Badruddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. The “Padri” advocates on Sumatra were heavily influenced by the Wahhabiyah in Arabia, a fundamentalist movement founded by Ibnu Wahhab in the middle 1700s. The movement is still favored in Saudi Arabia today. 1805 Pangeran Diponegoro experiences prophetic visions. 1806 British Navy skirmishes with French and Dutch forces off Java. British seize Bangka. Ministry of Colonies is founded for the Netherlands. The “Batavian Republic” of the Netherlands, under French control, is converted into the “Kingdom of Holland”, with Louis, the brother of Napoleon, as king. 1807 Tondano leads a rebellion against the British in Minahasa. British retake control of Melaka. French-run government of the Netherlands appoints Daendels as Governor-General of the Indies. 1808 January 1 Daendels arrives. Daendels moves his residence to Buitenzorg (now Bogor). Daendels takes formal possession of Lampung for the Dutch. Pakubuwono IV appeases Daendels; Hamengkubuwono II opposes him. Mangkunegara II organizes “Mangkunegaran Legion” with Dutch financing. Daendels reinstates the exiled Sultan of Cirebon, but the rebellion in the countryside around Cirebon continues. August 18 Daendels reorganizes areas under Dutch control in Central and East Java. Bupatis and local rulers are made employees of the Dutch government. Daendels orders a series of public works around Banten, including highways and a new harbor, to be carried out with local workers. The workers revolt under the burden; the Dutch Resident at Banten is killed. Daendels sends in a military force to put down the rebellion and replace the Sultan of Banten, who is sent to exile in Ambon. British decide to abandon Melaka; Stamford Raffles, then a clerk, writes urgent letter to India urging a reversal of the decision. The decision is reversed, and the British stay in Melaka. Sulaiman becomes Sultan of Banjar. Herman Willem DaendelsDaendels was a product of revolutionary Europe and a supporter of Napoleon, but he was also a colonialist. Daendels did not like the Sultans and Princes of Java at all, but he himself was sent to rule in their place. He thought he was ending oppression, but he was really bring in a newer, heavier rule from Europe. In particular, he took advantage of Dutch treaty rights over native rulers that had never before been exercised. He reorganized the legal system, but he himself governed through arbitrary decrees. He faced problems from every side, especially a British naval blockade that choked off much economic activity. 1809 Daendels builds mountain route from Batavia to Cirebon (Jalan Raya Pos/Groote Postweg), orders town of Bandung to be relocated to the road (its current site). Pangeran Kornel, local ruler of Sumedang, refuses to cooperate due to the mistreatment of locals. Daendels abandons the Dutch presence at Banjarmasin in order to consolidate his hold on Java. While in Batavia, Daendels started a campaign to clean up the city’s canals. His project to build a great highway through the Parahiyangan took the lives of many laborers. 1810 Daendels abandons the Dutch presence at Banjarmasin. May British retake Ambon, Ternate and Tidore. Raden Rangga, brother-in-law of the Sultan, starts failed revolt against Dutch in Yogya; Daendels marches on Yogya, forces Hamengkubuwono II to abdicate in favor of young Hamengkubuwono III. Napoleon annexes the Netherlands to France. Daendels flies the French flag over Batavia. Raffles visits Lord Minto, British Governor-General in India, in Calcutta, urging him to drive the French and Dutch from Java. Minto is convinced. 1811 January Daendels imposes new treaties on Yogya and Surakarta, including end to rent payments by the Dutch to the Sultans for the north coastal areas. Hamengkubuwono III hands over Pangeran Natakusuma to the Dutch on suspicion of being involved in 1810 rebellion. May Daendels is replaced by Jan Willem Janssens. (Daendels soon served under Napoleon on his failed Moscow campaign.) August 3 British forces land on Java. Local princes at Banten, which was still an area of unrest due to the burden of public works ordered by Daendels, take the Sultan of Banten prisoner and cooperate with the British. August 26 British under Lord Minto take Batavia. The Dutch, having suffered heavy losses, retreat to Semarang. September 18 Dutch surrender to British at Salatiga. Thomas Stamford Raffles appointed Lt-Governor of Java. Bagus Rangen is captured by the British; the rebellion around Cirebon subsides. Dutch resident at Palembang and company are killed, probably on orders of Sultan Badruddin; the British have Badruddin dethroned and replaced by his brother. Hamengkubuwono II retakes title in Yogya. December Raffles visits Yogya Kraton, generates much hostility. Pakubuwono IV sends secret letters to Yogya offering assistance against the British, but hoping to make Yogya overextend themselves; British begin secret negotiations with Hamengkubuwono III; Natakusuma offers help to British. Sir Thomas Stamford RafflesRaffles was known for his scientific interests as well as the work he did for the British East India Company: governing Java, governing the output at Bengkulu, Sumatra which was British at the time, and of course, for founding Singapore. 1812 January 12 Raffles issues a proclamation to reorganize and modernize the court system. June British shell, take, and loot Yogya. Pakubuwono IV of Surakarta offers little help. Hamengkubuwono II is removed by the British, sent to exile in Padang, and replaced again by Hamengkubuwono III. Natakusuma becomes Pangeran Pakualam I, founding the house of Pakualam. October British sign treaty with Sultan of Banjar. British take Timor. British seize Belitung as reparation for the “massacre” at Palembang the previous year. Raffles had the same delusion as Daendels, that he was ending oppression, when in fact he was bringing in a tighter colonial rule. The nobility in Yogya considered the British to be horribly impolite. In Raffles favor, it could be said that he liberalized the economy of Java with free-market reforms that helped farmers. He abolished forced labor and the compulsory cultivation of crops. He also tried to end the slave trade between Indonesians and foreigners. On the other hand, while farmers under Raffles were free to grow whatever they wanted, they still had to pay up to 40% of their crops to the government. 1813 Bahauddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. Raffles abolishes the Sultanate of Banten; the Sultan to receive a pension from the British government. November Revolt in the Netherlands against Napoleon. 1814 June Lord Minto, British Governor of India and Raffles’ patron and promoter, dies. Charges of corruption are brought against Raffles, who is eventually found innocent. June 21 Agreement between the nations that fought Napoleon to found a new “Kingdom of the Netherlands”. August 13 British agree on eventual return of possessions in the Indies to the Dutch. British war with Balinese in Buleleng and Karangasem over the slave trade. Bone attacks the British. British residents are stationed in Banjarmasin and Pontianak. Hamengkubuwono IV takes rule in Yogya. Diponegoro (his older brother, who had declined the succession) is appointed as guardian for the 13-year-old Sultan. British expedition reports on Borobudur and Prambanan to Europe for the first time. Javanese palace guard with keris, early 1800s. 1815 Much of Minangkabau nobility killed by Padri supporters; Padri begin to expand promotion of Islam into Batak areas. April-July Mount Tambora on Sumbawa erupts: 12,000 are dead from the eruption itself, later 50,000 die from related famine. May Raffles visits Borobudur. Raffles establishes direct rule over Cirebon, removing power from its Sultans. Netherlands government establishes regulations for governing the Netherlands Indies. (These would serve as a sort of constitution for the Netherlands Indies, in one form or another, until 1942.) The eruption of Tambora changed climate worldwide; in the northern United States, 1815 was called “the year without a summer”, and snow fell in July. 1816 Bone attacks British again. August 19 Dutch return to Batavia. Cornelis Elout continues Raffles’ reform policies. Dutch unsuccessfully try to get rajas of Bali to accept Dutch authority. 1817 Madura consolidated into single kabupaten. Pattimura leads revolt against returning Dutch in Ambon; hanged in December. Botanical Gardens founded at Bogor. Gunung Ijen erupts in eastern Java. Thomas Matulessy, or Pattimura, led a rebellion against the Dutch in Ambon in 1817. 1818 March Raffles is sent to govern British fort at Bengkulu. Raffles sends a small force into Lampung to establish a British presence there; British East India Company officials in Calcutta tell him to turn back. Raffles sends troops to Palembang to intervene in negotiations between the Sultan and the Dutch. They are arrested and sent to Batavia. British officials again tell Raffles to withdraw. Dutch under Cornelis Elout end the slave trade on Java. Dutch return to Melaka. Dutch return to Pontianak. 1819 January 19 Raffles founds Singapore, having purchased the island from the Sultan of Johore. Dutch return to Padang. Raffles tries to incite anti-Dutch actions in the Minangkabau countryside. Najamuddin Pangeran Ratu becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1820 Pakubuwono V becomes Susuhunan of Solo. Dutch send expedition to the Aru Islands. Umbrella commission is organized to oversee Protestant churches in the Netherlands Indies. Netherlands Indies cent from the 1820s 1821 Remaining Minangkabau nobles sign treaty giving Minangkabau to Dutch in exchange for protection against the Padri. “Padri War” begins. Cholera appears in Java for the first time; rice harvest fails. Najamuddin Prabu Anom becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1822 Hamengkubuwono IV dies amid rumors of poisoning. Hamengkubuwono V is new Sultan. Diponegoro is upset by the handling of the situation by Dutch officials. Mount Merapi erupts near Yogya. Gov.-Gen. van der Capellen 1823 Dutch forces are defeated by the Padri at Lintau. Gov.-Gen. van der Capellen abolishes land leases in Central Java. Pakubuwono VI ascends in Solo. Kramo Jayo becomes Sultan of Palembang. Raffles, in poor health, returns to England. The nobility of the Yogya kraton in these days served without collecting a salary. Instead, courtiers were given the right to collect rent on land within the Sultanate. Such rentable lands had been greatly reduced due to colonial expansion, first by the VOC, then the British. The situation for them improved a little after the Dutch returned in 1816, as European planters began to rent lands (and the use of the peasants living on them) for plantations. Van der Capellen, however, was of the same liberal mindset as Daendels and Raffles before him, and was disgusted by the feudal lifestyle these planters had started to enjoy. But when he abolished this system of land leasing, he also stopped the main source of income for the nobility, turning them against the Dutch. 1824 March 17 British and Dutch sign Treaty of London and divide the Indies between themselves. The Dutch claim Sumatra, Java, Maluku, Irian Jaya, and so on. The British claim Malaya and Singapore, and retain an interest in North Borneo. Aceh is supposed to remain independent. Bone takes Dutch areas in south Sulawesi. Netherlands Indies faces a financial crunch–Gov. Gen. van der Capellen offers the colony to a private British firm, Palmer and Co., as collateral on a loan to bail out the colonial government. (The Netherlands government, embarassed by these events, made large loans to the Netherlands Indies in 1826 and 1828.) Dutch institute direct rule in Riau. The Treaty of London in 1824 was intended to divide the Indies between British and Dutch control. Many of the boundaries defined in this treaty would later become boundaries of the Republic of Indonesia. 1825 March 29 Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij is founded. Dutch defeat Bone before Java War; sporadic fighting continues for years. Padri fighters take southern Tapanuli area. King Sisingamangaraja X of the Bataks is killed fighting against the Padri. Dutch require Muslim pilgrims who wish to make the hajj to get a passport and pay a 110 gulden tax. May Diponegoro and court retainers clash in dispute over new road. July Dutch send troops to arrest Diponegoro, who declares rebellion. This was the beginning of the “Java War”, which lasted until 1830. Adam al-Wasi’ Billah becomes Sultan of Banjar. Line of succession in Palembang ends. Dutch institute direct rule. Dutch issue orders to arrest Raden Intan in Lampung. Raden Intan dies and is succeeded by Raden Imba Kusuma. Diponegoro had support of many princes and bupati, rural farmers, and religious leaders, including Kyai Maja. The Yogya Kraton did not side with him. Pakubuwono VI of Surakarta supported him quietly. The “Java War” began with a dispute over a new road that would have disrupted an orchard that Diponegoro had planted, but this was only the last in a long series of insults and conflicts. 1826 Guerilla warfare widespread throughout central and east Java. The Dutch begin organizing special troops for fighting in the Indies. Van der Capellen is replaced by Du Bus as Governor-General. August Dutch return Hamengkubuwono II from exile in Ambon, and reinstall him as Sultan of Yogya. October Diponegoro is defeated at Gowok, near Surakarta. His forces are pushed back. Prince DiponegoroPangeran or Prince Diponegoro is remembered as a great hero today. He had the mystic vision of a religious leader, the pedigree of the House of Yogya, and an affinity for the common people. Many streets and public institutions have been named for him. 1827 Dutch reorganize forces in the Java War, change to more flexible tactics, take offensive against guerilla bands. 1828 April Javanese successes against the Dutch. Madura consolidated with Surabaya. Smallpox epidemic in Bali. Fort Du Bus founded by Dutch in Irian Jaya. November Kyai Maja, spiritual advisor to Diponegoro, is taken prisoner by the Dutch after hand-to-hand combat. 1829 September Pangeran Mangkubumi (uncle of Diponegoro) surrenders. He is allowed to return to his palace. October Sentot surrenders. The Dutch make him a Lieutenant-Colonel. SentotSentot fought against the Dutch during the Java War, but later switched allegiances. 1830 March Diponegoro agrees to negotiations in Magelang, is arrested, exiled to Manado, then to Ujung Padang (until 1855). Pakubuwono VI, suspected by the Dutch, is exiled to Ambon (until 1849). Pakubuwono VII becomes Susuhunan of Solo. 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1670 to 1800: Court Intrigues and the Dutch1670 VOC establishes outposts at Bengkalis (across the straits from Melaka) and Perak, both for controlling the trade in tin. Balambangan in easternmost Java becomes independent of Balinese rule. 1671 Trunojoyo unites Madura under his control, drives out Mataram forces. (Note: throughout this page, VOC stands for Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or the Dutch East India Company. The VOC had been granted many of the powers of a sovereign state by the government of the Netherlands.) 1672 Gunung Merapi erupts in Mataram. VOC recognizes Arung Palakka as King of Bone. In 1672, Louis XIV of France invaded the Netherlands with 100,000 soldiers. The Dutch had to open the dikes and flood the fields to prevent Amsterdam from falling to the French. However, since travel and communication were so slow in the 1600s and 1700s, these events had little effect on the activities of the VOC, which had the power to govern itself in any case. 1674 Famine in Mataram. Bugis under Arung Palakka attack Toraja. Makassarese unhappy with Arung Palakka settle in East Java. 1675 Rebellion in Mataram, with help from Trunojoyo. Makassarese exiles attack ports on north coast of Java. Trunojoyo of Madura takes Surabaya. Rebels appeal to Islamic sentiments among the common people against both the court of Mataram and the VOC. 1676 Trunojoyo defeats Mataram army at Gogodog. Amangkurat I sends his son, Pangeran Puger, to the VOC to ask for help. VOC sends Admiral Speelman to fight the rebels against Mataram in North Java and Madura. Speelman quiets the rebellion along the coast between Cirebon and Jepara. 1677 February 25 VOC makes a treaty with Amangkurat I: VOC will help Mataram, VOC territory around Batavia will be extended eastward, VOC may establish a factory anywhere they like without any restrictions on exports or imports, Mataram will restrict Malays, Arabs and other outsiders from settling in Mataram, and Mataram will repay the VOC for the cost of putting down the rebellion. Speelman receives the right to make treaties on behalf of Amangkurat I. May VOC pushes Trunojoyo out of Surabaya. Trunojoyo leaves behind over 100 cannon. May Trunojoyo moves on to loot the court of Mataram at Plered. Both loyal and rebellious members of the family of Amangkurat I flee. Trunojoyo takes the royal treasury and retreats to Kediri. Banten forces occupy Cirebon and the Priangan. July Amangkurat I dies. Amangkurat II seeks VOC help against the rebels. Balinese from Karangasem drive Makassarese off of Lombok. VOC occupies Sangir islands. 1678 January 15 Amangkurat II gives the VOC a monopoly on the sugar trade in Jepara. Amangkurat II, without money to pay his debts to the VOC, promises to give up Semarang, his claims to the Priangan, and fees from coastal ports until debts are paid. VOC and Amangkurat II march on Kediri and destroy Trunojoyo’s headquarters after a fifty-day siege. Arung Palakka and his supporters fight for the VOC as mercenaries, and conspire to win away Makassarese mercenaries fighting for Trunojoyo. Captured gold and treasure is distributed among the victorious troops. Amangkurat II receives back the gold crown of Majapahit, an heirloom of the house of Mataram, but its central diamond is missing (possibly stolen by a Dutch soldier). Trunojoyo himself escapes. Inayatullah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan. December 9 Nine Makassarese chiefs who had been fighting for Trunojoyo as mercenaries surrender to the VOC, and are allowed to return to Sulawesi. Throughout this period, the rulers of Mataram borrowed money from the VOC, which turned out to be a bad deal for both. The rulers of Mataram lost power and sovereignty, but the debts to the VOC were never fully repaid, and the VOC lost money year after year. 1679 VOC and Arung Palakka drive the remaining Makassarese out of East Java. Banten retreats from Cirebon and the Priangan. VOC makes an alliance with Minahasans at Manado. December 25 Trunojoyo gives himself up to the combined VOC and Mataram forces, under the promise that his life will be spared. He is executed anyway. (In one story, he is promised the post of minister and executed by Amangkurat II himself, with a royal keris.) 1680 VOC forces attack rebel areas in Mataram. Pangeran Puger continues to run a court at Plered against Amangkurat II. Amangkurat II founds a new court at Kartasura (guarded by VOC troops), then drives Puger out of Plered. Banten declares war on VOC. Sultan Ageng is replaced in coup by his son, Sultan Haji, who seeks help from the VOC. VOC forces invade Madura, supposedly on behalf of Mataram. Cakraningrat II, uncle of Trunojoyo, takes power in West Madura. VOC retains control of East Madura. 1681 January 6 VOC signs agreement with the princes of Cirebon for mutual assistance in case of emergencies, and agreeing on severe punishment if any of the three heads rebelled against the VOC. Cirebon will not build any fortifications without VOC approval, the VOC has a monopoly on pepper in Cirebon, and the princes may control the export of sugar and rice from Cirebon. Pangeran Puger builds a new force and retakes the center of Mataram, but not Kartasura. VOC forces push him back and defeat him. VOC intervenes in Roti, puts allies in power. Karangasem begins trying to take Lombok. 1682 Sultan Ageng’s supporters, including much of the population, retake Banten against his son. VOC reacts by taking Banten with superior firepower. VOC expels English and other European traders from Banten, and begins to control Cirebon, the Priangan, and Lampung. Syekh Waliyullah, Islamic scholar and enemy of the Dutch, is exiled to the VOC post in Ceylon. 1684 April 17 VOC renews its 1659 treaty with Banten; in addition, Banten gives up its claims to Cirebon, and grants the VOC a monopoly in the pepper trade in Lampung. April 28 VOC cancels the debts owed by the Sultan of Banten, but only on the condition that the previous treaties between the VOC and Banten are obeyed. Surapati, (also called Untung), a former slave and outlaw, now employed as a VOC soldier, attacks a VOC column and escapes. He travels across the countryside of Java gathering followers. Surapati instructs his followers to kill two officials in Banyumas who were rebelling against the authority of Mataram. He receives the gratitude of Amangkurat II, and is given refuge by anti-VOC members of the court of Mataram at Kartasura. 1685 Post is founded at Bengkulu by English traders who had been forced to leave Banten. VOC forces treaty on Sultan of Riau. Sa’dillah becomes Sultan of Banjar. 1686 February 15 VOC receives a complete monopoly on pepper in Banten. VOC sends an embassy to the Mataram court at Kartasura, demanding the return of Surapati. Amangkurat II stages a fake attack on Surapati’s residence, then has his soldiers turn to cut down VOC representatives and soldiers, with the help of Pangeran Puger. The remaining VOC presence at court leaves for Jepara. Amangkurat II sends an ambassador to the VOC at Jepara claiming that he took no part in attacking the Dutch. Surapati and the chief minister of Amangkurat II leave Kartasura for Pasuruan. Amangkurat II orders his ministers in Madura and Surabaya to make the appearance of pursuit. Surapati begins building a new kingdom for himself in easternmost Java. Amangkurat II sends secret letters to Johore, Minangkabau, English East India Co, even Siam trying to find help against VOC. 1688 Local leader on Bangka (claimed by Palembang) asks for VOC protection. 1689 Plot against VOC in Batavia fails; rebels flee to Kartasura. 1690 Amangkurat II stages another mock attack on Surapati at Pasuruan. The promised VOC help arrives late, foiling the plans to ambush the VOC soldiers again. VOC abandons outpost at Perak. Tea is introduced on Java. 1694 VOC begins contacts with Bataks around Lake Toba, Sumatra. 1695 Sultanate of Asahan is founded on Sumatra, as a dependency of Siak. 1696 Arung Palakka, King of Bone, passes away. Sultan Muhammad Syah of Indrapura abdicates. VOC gains influence in the absence of a ruler there. 1697 King of Buleleng in Bali takes Balambangan on Java and returns it to Balinese rule. 1699 Surapati takes areas around Madiun. VOC introduces coffee cultivation to Java. VOC increases influence around Kutai on Kalimantan. Sultan Mahmud II of Riau is assassinated; civil war breaks out. Earthquake at Batavia. 1700 Tahlilillah becomes Sultan of Banjar. 1701 Three years of confusion in the VOC ensue over the post of Governor-General. Sultan of Banjar tries to eject the British post there by force, but fails. 1702 Amangkurat II sends a secret representative to the VOC, hoping for help in the face of court intrigues. Antonio Coelho Guerreiro arrives as the first official governor of Portuguese Timor. During the 1700s, the Portuguese on Timor were limited to outposts along the northern coast only. 1703 Amangkurat II dies. Amangkurat III faces opposition from Pangeran Puger. Amangkurat III tries to take the wife of Cakraningrat II of Madura, who complains to her husband. Cakraningrat II in turn urges Pangeran Puger to take the crown of Mataram away from Amangkurat III. 1704 Puger leaves the court of Mataram at Kartasura for Semarang, seeking VOC help. Puger gets support from Cakraningrat II of Madura. Amangkurat III demands that the VOC return Puger to his custody; the VOC refuses. Amangkurat III takes the son of Pangeran Puger (Raden Surya Kusuma) into custody intending to execute him. Gunung Merapi begins erupting in the midst of this plan; Amangkurat II interprets this as a sign, and elevates the son to the level of Pangeran himself. VOC army takes Demak and other coastal areas on behalf of Pangeran Puger. 1705 Amangkurat III sends an ambassador to the VOC at Semarang, but too late: the VOC has already received Pangeran Puger favorably. Representatives of both rivals are sent to Batavia at the same time. March 18 VOC recognizes Pangeran Puger as Susuhunan Pakubuwono I. VOC sends reinforcements to Semarang. June 19 Susuhunan Pakubuwono I takes his office in a public ceremony at Semarang. Surapati offers to make a conditional surrender to the VOC; the VOC rejects his offer. Army of Pakubuwono I with VOC help takes the court of Mataram at Kartasura. (The VOC bribes the commander of the troops at Kartasura, allowing them to take Salatiga and other approaches without significant resistance.) Raden Surya Kusuma is strangled; other officials who remain are allowed to keep their posts. Amangkurat III flees to Surapati with the pusaka (emblems or heirlooms of the house of Mataram) and moveable assets in gold and jewels. Four years of warfare begin. October 5 Pakubuwono I makes a deal with the VOC: Mataram debts to VOC are wiped out; East Madura goes to VOC control; Semarang is officially a VOC city after years of occupation; Cirebon is officially a VOC protectorate; VOC gets extensive trade rights; Javanese sailors must stick to their home waters; Mataram must deliver rice on demand to the VOC at a price set by the VOC. In addition, the two sides agree that no other European nation will be allowed to build factories or fortifications anywhere on Java. October 11 Pakubuwono I signs an agreement to pay the costs of the VOC garrison at Kartasura. VOC warehouse and docks in the Netherlands, from an old engraving. 1706 VOC and Mataram armies take Kediri, and defeat Amangkurat III and Surapati. Surapati escapes with serious wounds, and dies in the mountains. Surapati’s son Pangating convinces local leaders around Gresik, Kediri and Balambangan to continue supporting Amangkurat III. The war on Java continues. Muhammad Mansur Jayo Ing Lago becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1707 VOC and Pakubuwono I of Mataram battle the forces of Amangkurat III at Madiun, and take Pasuruan. Amangkurat III flees to Malang, where he is attacked by the Pangeran of Blitar. Cakraningrat III takes power in West Madura. Banjar finally throws out the British. 1708 VOC forces land at Surabaya to continue fighting against Amangkurat III. July 17 Amangkurat III surrenders himself at Surabaya, after receiving a false VOC promise of lands and freedom in exchange for surrender. August 24 Amangkurat III, his family and attendants are sent by ship from Surabaya to Batavia. At Batavia, he is told that the VOC representative at Surabaya had no authority to offer him terms of surrender. He is taken as a prisoner of war and sent to exile in Ceylon. When Amangkurat III surrendered, he also surrendered the remaining heirlooms of the house of Mataram in his possession, but the gold crown of Majapahit disappeared at about that time, and was never seen again. 1710 Dewa Agung (high king) on Bali moves court from Gelgel to Klungkung. VOC opens tin mines on Bangka. Around this time, many Bugis, who had been wandering as mercenaries or refugees due to the wars involving Makassar and Bone, began to settle on and around the Malay peninsula. 1712 Pakubuwono I sends repeated requests to the VOC in Batavia for help against continuing unrest in Balambangan and Madura. 1714 British begin building Fort Marlborough at Bengkulu. Sultan of Tidore cedes claim on Irian Jaya to VOC. Komaruddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. After this time (especially after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, which ended 13 years of war between the European powers and their colonies) the Dutch and the VOC began to lose prominence, and Britain became the dominant colonial and naval power in the world. 1717 King of Mengwi becomes most powerful king on Bali. VOC accuses the Adipati of Surabaya of collaborating with the rebels in eastern Java. Pakubuwono I is unhappy about the conflict between his mutually loyal relationship with the Adipati and his relationship with the VOC. The aged Adipati offers his surrender in the hope of avoiding further unrest. He is executed at Kartasura. The son of the Adipati of Surabaya, Jaya Puspita, leads a renewed rebellion against Mataram in the areas around Surabaya, Kediri, Probolinggo, Balambangan, and Madura, with help from Bali. The VOC organizes further reinforcements to counter the threat. Rice shortages spread due to the increased civil disorder. 1718 VOC takes Surabaya and Madiun from the rebels. Some rebellions continue in east Java. Cakraningrat III of Madura is killed by VOC soldiers while travelling to talks; Cakraningrat IV takes power. 1719 Amangkurat IV takes rule in Mataram. Court rebellion breaks out almost immediately; rebel princes flee eastward. A combined VOC and Mataram force drives the rebels back from Kediri to Malang. 1721 Rumors of a conspiracy against the VOC spread in Batavia. Peter Erberfelt and several others are tried and executed. 1722 Bugis take over Riau and the entire Sultanate of Johore. Johore remains under Bugis influence for many years. VOC receives a monopoly on tin from Bangka and Belitung from the Sultan of Palembang. 1723 Rebel princes and Surapati’s descendants in East Java are subdued by VOC forces. VOC begins compulsory coffee production in Priangan. For the next century, coffee from Java would dominate the world market. 1724 Badaruddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1726 Pakubuwono II takes power in Mataram at age 14. Bugis prince Arung Singkang of Wajo takes Pasir and Kutai in Kalimantan. 1728 Court intrigues in Kartasura result in Pangeran Mangkunegara being sent into exile by Dutch. 1729 King of Roti becomes a Christian. 1731 Gov.-Gen. Durven and several other high officials are ordered to return to the Netherlands by the Heeren XVII for financial misdeeds. 1732 Malaria epidemic sweeps Batavia. 1733 Arung Singkang attacks Banjar. Mengwi defeats forces of Buleleng on Bali. Pakubuwono II agrees to heavier debt service payments to VOC. He has his minister Danureja sent into exile in Ceylon. 1734 Pakubuwono II transfers his claim to Balambangan to VOC. Balambangan, however, remains under Balinese influence. Official VOC archives in Batavia are founded. 1735 Official VOC archives in Batavia are founded. 1737 Arung Singkang attacks Bone. 1738 VOC tells Pakubuwono II to exile Pangeran Purbaya. 1739 Arung Singkang attacks Bone and Makassar, but VOC drives him back. 1740 VOC begins a campaign to have “superfluous Chinese” deported to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) or South Africa. Rumors spread that the Chinese, once aboard ship, will be killed at sea. Some Chinese begin arming themselves to resist. Anti-Chinese riots break out in Batavia in response to the perceived rebellion. 10,000 or more Chinese are killed, and the Chinese district is burnt down. Kingdom of Karangasem on Bali takes Lombok. 1741 Escaping Chinese from Batavia attack Semarang and Rembang; the VOC leaves Demak. Pakubuwono II changes sides, sends a force to attack VOC at Semarang, and destroys the VOC garrison at Kartasura. Cakraningrat IV of Madura declares allegiance with the VOC, and rejects his ties with Mataram and Pakubuwono II. He orders the killing of all Chinese on Madura, then sends out a force with takes Tuban, Lamongan, Gresik, and other areas in northeastern Java. Forces of Mataram and rebellious Chinese attack many north coast cities of the VOC. Siege of Semarang is unsuccessful. Rival Governor-Generals of the VOC struggle in Batavia: Valckenier arrests Van Imhoff and sends him back to Europe. The Heeren XVII in the Netherlands names Van Imhoff as Governor-General. Valckenier is himself eventually arrested and jailed. Gov.-Gen. Valckenier 1742 Negotiations begin between the VOC and Pakubuwono II of Mataram as the VOC and Cakraningrat IV of Madura spread their power. Cakraningrat IV accuses Pakubuwono II’s minister Nata Kusuma of spreading trouble. An agreement is reached between the VOC and Pakubuwono II; Nata Kusuma is not kept informed, but finds out about the agreement anyway. A popular rebellion under Sunan Kuning, a grandson of Amangkurat III, against the VOC and Mataram takes hold in the countryside. Nata Kusuma, Pangeran Mas Said and the rebellious Chinese from Batavia contribute. The rebellion takes Kartasura and holds it for four months; Pakubuwono II flees with his family. Cakraningrat IV retakes Kartasura from the rebels. The VOC is suspicious, and orders Pakubuwono II to be put back on throne. VOC troops defeat the last of the Chinese forces; a general amnesty is declared. Pangeran Mas Said returns to the court of Mataram, but is not received back favorably, and returns to the hills to plan further rebellion. 1743 Rebellion continues under Pangeran Mangkubumi, Pangeran Singasari, and Pangeran Mas Said. November 11 Pakubuwono II gives VOC Surabaya, Rembang, Jepara and claims to easternmost Java and West Madura. VOC receives a say in court appointments. Mixed-Portuguese locals attack VOC post at Kupang on Timor; VOC solidifies control of western part of Timor. VOC takes Bawean island. 1745 Malaria epidemic in Batavia. 1745 February 17 Pakubuwono II moves into the Kraton Surakarta. Cakraningrat IV of Madura refuses to return control over the coastal areas of Java he had taken in 1741-42. He wages war with the VOC, attacks Surabaya, and retakes much of Madura and East Java. Cakraningrat IV is defeated by VOC forces. He escapes to Banjarmasin, but the Sultan of Banjar captures him and sends him to Batavia. The VOC exiles him to South Africa. Cakraningrat V takes his title in West Madura. Gov-Gen Van Imhoff founds Buitenzorg (today’s Bogor). Tamjidillah becomes Sultan of Banjar. Gov.-Gen. Van Imhoff 1746 Pangeran Mangkubumi, disgusted with capitulations to the VOC (and being the target of court intrigues to take away his lands), announces full-scale rebellion. He is joined by Pangeran Mas Said. August 26 First VOC Post Office opened in Jakarta. VOC reestablishes presence in Perak. VOC receives Siak (across the straits from Melaka) from the Sultan of Johore. Bank van Leening founded by VOC to support trade. 1747 Bugis internal war begins over dissatisfaction with Arung Singkang. VOC decress that native law (”adat”) will be in force in areas under its control outside of Batavia. VOC establishes a presence at Banjarmasin. 1748 Mangkubumi’s rebel forces attack Surakarta. VOC sends Sultan of Banten into exile, makes his wife Ratu Sarifa regent but take direct control. 1749 December 11 Pakubuwono II, in very ill health, signs a treaty giving full sovereignty in all Mataram to the VOC. (The treaty is widely ignored.) VOC declares Pakubuwono III as heir to throne of Mataram. Mangkubumi claims the title for himself, and rules from Yogya. Pakubuwono II dies. 1750 Mas Said attacks Surakarta for Mangkubumi. Rebellion in Banten against Ratu Sarifa and the VOC. The rebels threaten Batavia and Lampung. Berau in east Kalimantan becomes independent. 1751 VOC forces destroy the Banten rebellion; guerilla attacks continue against VOC plantations around Batavia. VOC extends control over Lampung. 1754 Mangkubumi considers negotiating with VOC, worries about possible disloyalty from Mas Said. Arung Singkang abdicates from power, continues guerilla attacks. 1755 Mangkubumi changes title from Susuhunan to Sultan, takes name Hamengkubuwono, is now Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. February 13 Treaty of Gijanti: Sultan Hamengkubuwono gets VOC recognition of title and lands. Separation of Yogyakarta and Surakarta into two separate principalities. Treaty requires Sultan Hamengkubuwono to ally himself with the VOC against Mas Said. Hamengkubuwono I builds the Kraton at Yogyakarta. Mas Said, now without allies, attacks VOC forces. Keraton NgayogyakartaThe famous Kraton of Yogya began construction in the 1750s. 1756 VOC signs treaties with chiefs on Savu and Sumba. Mas Said attacks the new court at Yogyakarta. October Bugis begin a siege of VOC at Melaka. October 7 Hamengkubuwono I officially moves into the Kraton Ngayogyakarta. VOC sends a special ambassador to Banjarmasin. A trade agreement is reached. VOC makes agreements with local chieftains on Timor. 1757 February Reinforcements from Batavia force Bugis to end siege of Melaka. Mas Said agrees to negotiations with the VOC, the Susuhunan of Surakarta and the Sultan of Yogyakarta. The Courts of central Java as they were founded in the mid-1700s have continued down to the present day. There is still a Sultan of Yogya today, a Susuhunan of Surakarta, and a Pangeran Mangkunegara. The Sultan of Yogya still has special powers within the Daerah Istimewa or Special Area of Yogyakarta; the others retain their palaces and titles, but no special powers. 1758 January 1 VOC signs treaty with the Bugis. Hostilities between the VOC, Yogya, Surakarta and Pangeran Mas Said end; Mas Said becomes Pangeran Mangkunegara I with his court also at Surakarta. VOC has control of all the north coast provinces. Najamuddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1759 VOC abandons fort at Linggi, near Melaka. 1765 VOC abandons fort at Siak. Kingdom of Karangasem on Bali defeats Buleleng. 1768 VOC expedition to Malang against descendants of Surapati captures Pangeran Singasari, who dies in custody. 1769 French expedition steals clove and nutmeg plants from Ambon, breaking the VOC monopoly. Portuguese build post at Dili, East Timor. VOC copper cent from 1769 1770 Chinese laborers in the Sambas area of Kalimantan revolt against the local Sultan and their Dayak overseers. English Captain James Cook visits Batavia. 1771 Last of Surapati’s line is captured by VOC forces in Malang. Malang now falls under VOC control. VOC forces work to push Balinese out of Balambangan. Syarif Abdurrahman from Arabia founds Pontianak, becomes its first Sultan. 1773 Division of lands between Yogyakarta and Surakarta is formalized. 1776 Bahauddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1778 Tahmidillah becomes Sultan of Banjar. Gunung Api on Banda erupts. The Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen is founded. (Its collections would later form the basis of the National Museum and National Library.) Sultan of Pontianak accepts VOC protectorate in exchange for recognition by the VOC as a Sultan. 1780 War breaks out between the Netherlands and Britain. Extra troops are sent to Java. Plague in Batavia. Smallpox epidemic on Sumatra. Islamic reform movement grows in Minangkabau. 1781 British take the Dutch outpost at Perak. 1783 The VOC, short of cash, asks the Netherlands States-General for financial assistance. 1784 VOC attacks Riau to prevent the British from taking over. October 29 VOC defeats Bugis forces in Riau. Sultan of Riau dies without a successor; VOC takes complete control of Johore and Riau by treaty. VOC builds fort on Bintan. Treaty of Paris ends the war with Britain, and opens the VOC controlled Indies to free trade. 1785 Future Hamengkubuwono II of Yogya builds fortifications around the Kraton. 1786 British found Penang in Malaya.Sultan of Banjar cedes sovereignty to VOC.Road is built from Batavia to Bandung. 1788 Pakubuwono III is succeeded by Pakubuwono IV. 1790 Rumors spread that Pakubuwono IV is planning a massacre of Dutch in Java, and takeovers of the Yogya and Mangkunegara courts. Forces from Yogya and VOC surround Surakarta. Pakubuwono IV orders his advisors to leave court; VOC sends them into exile. Gold rush begins in West Kalimantan. 1791 VOC withdraws from Pontianak. 1792 Hamengkubuwono I dies and is succeeded by Hamengkubuwono II. VOC declares that Mangkunegara title and possessions are hereditary. 1795 January Dutch revolutionaries and French troops declare the Batavian Republic in the Netherlands. The Stadhouder of the Netherlands flees to London. The new Republic finds itself in a state of war with Britain. February 7 The Prince of Orange, stadhouder-in-exile of the Netherlands, issues a letter to all colonial governors telling them to surrender to the British. (The VOC in Batavia do not comply.) August VOC surrenders Melaka to the British East India Company. First census on Java. In 1795, the Netherlands were remade into the Batavian Republic under the control of revolutionary France. From this time, Britain started to take temporary or permanent control of many Dutch colonies. 1796 March 1 Heeren XVII transfer administration of the VOC to a government Committee for East Indian Affairs. Mangkunegara II inherits court, but much of the treasury is stolen by the VOC resident at Surakarta. British occupy Padang. British occupy Ambon. Riots break out in Maluku between villages. VOC fortress at Ternate refuses to surrender. 1797 Nederlands Zendelinggenootschap or Dutch Missionary Society is founded. This was the beginning of heavy activity by Dutch Protestant missionaries in Indonesia, not only to Java and Sumatra but also to very remote areas, eventually even to Irian Jaya. 1798 Napoleonic Dutch government revokes charter of VOC, assumes its debts and assets. Sultan of Tidore sets up subsidiary Sultan of Jailolo on Halmahera. The VOC was losing money to corruption and political intrigues. By the end of the 1700s, it was fully bankrupt. On January 1st, 1800, it ceased to exist. 1799 April 27 Committee for East Indian Affairs sends a letter of instructions to Batavia, stating that the revolutionary ideas of the Republic (liberty and equality) could not be applied to the Indies. Dutch officers under siege at Ternate mutiny and surrender to the British. By 1799, the British had taken all the former VOC possessions and protectorates in the area, except for Java, Banjarmasin, Palembang, western Timor and Makassar. Most of these were returned to the Dutch in 1802, only to be reconquered by the British a few years later. Courtesy————————————————-Islam Muslim Islamic banking finance insurance marriage clothing fashion software qurban Makkah & Madinah.

1500 to 1670: Great Kings and Trade Empires1500 Palembang converts to Islam. 1505 Trenggono, grandson of Raden Patah, becomes prince of Demak. Local powers on Java around 1500 included: Demak which was the chief power in Java in the early 1500s. Nearby Jepara participated in many naval expeditions. Surabaya. Some powers that later came under Surabaya include Gresik, home of Sunan Giri, and Pasuruan. Banten, which was a Hindu power under Pajajaran until the arrival of Sunan Gunungjati. 1509 Portuguese visit Melaka for the first time. The goal of the Portuguese was to take control of trade. Later trade empires would include Gowa, Banten, and the Dutch VOC or East India Company. The original goal of all of them was money before political power, but they did not always stick to their original goal. 1511 April Portuguese Admiral Albuquerque sets sail from Goa to Melaka. August 10 Albuquerque’s forces take Melaka. Sultan of Melaka escapes to Riau. Portuguese in Melaka destroy a “Javanese” fleet. Their ship sinks with treasure on way back to Goa. December Albuquerque sends three ships under da Breu from Melaka to explore eastwards. The gate to the Portuguese fortress at Melaka. Melaka was the center of the Portuguese trade empire in the Indies in the 1500s. The Portuguese in Melaka were attacked every few years by the Sultans of Malaya and Sumatra, especially Aceh and Johore. Sometimes alliances would be formed with powers on Java to attack the Portuguese. 1512 Da Breu expedition travels from Melaka to Madura, Bali, Lombok, Aru and Banda. Two ships are wrecked at Banda. Da Breu returns to Melaka; Francisco Serr?o repairs ship and continues to Ambon, Ternate, and Tidore. Serr?o offers support to Ternate in a dispute with Tidore–his men build a Portuguese post at Ternate. Serr?o wrote to Magellan at this time (who formerly served under Albuquerque, but pledged allegiance to Spain after being refused a promotion) telling Magellan about the riches of the Indies. 1513 A force from Jepara and Palembang attacks the Portuguese in Melaka, but is repulsed. March Portuguese send an envoy to King of Pajajaran. Portuguese are allowed to build a fort at Sunda Kelapa (now Jakarta). Portuguese make contact with King Udara, son of Girindrawardhana and ruler over the remnant of Majapahit. Portuguese build factories at Ternate and Bacan. Udara attacks Demak with the help of the King of Klungkung on Bali. Majapahit forces are driven back, but Sunan Ngudung falls in battle. Many more supporters of Majapahit flee to Bali. Powers on Sumatra included: Aceh, the first major Islamic power in what is now Indonesia. It was founded by local rulers of Lamuri, around today’s Banda Aceh, after they were expelled from Pedir (around today’s Sigli). After the fall of Melaka to the Portuguese, many Muslim merchants moved their business operations to Aceh, and this caused Aceh to grow as a trading power. Palembang where sultans still ruled long after the fall of Srivijaya. On Kalimantan, Sukadana was a thriving city founded by refugees from the fall of Majapahit. 1514 Ali Mughayat Syah is first Sultan of Aceh. On Bali the King of Gelgel (near today’s Klungkung) was the most powerful king in the 1500s. 1515 First Portuguese visit Timor. 1518 Sultan Mahmud of Melaka takes power at Johore. Raden Patah passes away; Yunus becomes Sultan of Demak. The Sultanate of Johore was attacked by the Portuguese all through the 1520s. 1520 Aceh begins taking northeast coast of Sumatra. Balinese attack on Lombok. Portuguese traders begin visiting Flores and Solor. Banjar on Kalimantan converts to Islam. 1521 Yunus leads fleet from Demak and Cirebon against the Portuguese in Melaka. Yunus is killed in battle. Trenggono becomes Sultan of Demak. Portuguese take Pasai in Sumatra; Gunungjati leaves Pasai for Mecca. Last ship of Magellan expedition around the world sails between Lembata and Pantar islands in Nusa Tenggara. Sultan Trenggono is remembered as a ruler who did much to spread Islam throughout East and Central Java. 1522 February Portuguese expedition under De Brito arrives on Banda. May De Brito expedition arrives at Ternate, builds a Portuguese fort. Banten, still Hindu, asks for Portuguese help against Muslim Demak. Survivors of Magellan’s expedition around the world visit Timor. Portuguese build fort at Hitu on Ambon. Only 18 men survived Magellan’s expedition, but they returned to Spain with about a ton of cloves, enough to make them wealthy for life. The arrival of Spanish ships was worrisome to the Portuguese, however, who now had to deal with a European competitor in the heart of the Spice Islands. 1523 Gunungjati returns from Mecca and settles at Demak, marries sister of Sultan Trenggono. 1524 Gunungjati and son Hasanuddin do both covert and overt missionary work in West Java to weaken the kingdom of Pajajaran and its alliance with the Portuguese. Local ruler of Banten, formerly dependent on Pajajaran, converts to Islam and joins Demak’s side. Aceh takes Pasai and Pedir in northern Sumatra. About this time much of Java began to convert to Islam, including Banten, Mataram and Central Java, and Surabaya. 1525 Hasanuddin, son of Gunungjati, does missionary work in Lampung. 1526 Portuguese build first fort on Timor. 1527 Demak conquers Kediri, Hindu remnant of Majapahit state; Sultans of Demak claims to be successors to Majapahit claims; Sunan Kudus takes part. Demark takes Tuban. Demak, with help from Banten, takes Sunda Kelapa from Pajajaran; renames it Jayakerta. (Credit is given to a “Fatahillah”–or after the Portuguese mispronounciation, “Falatehan”– but this might be a name given to Sunan Gunungjati.) Pajajaran Kingdom is pushed away from the sea. Kingdom of Palakaran on Madura, based at Arosbaya (now Bangkalan), converts to Islam under Kyai Pratanu. Expeditions from Spain and Mexico try to drive the Portuguese from Maluku. Masjid at Kudus, from the early 1500s. Among the notable figures of this period are the Wali Songo or Nine Walis. See also Notes on Islam in Modern Indonesia. 1529 Demak conquers Madiun. Kings of Spain and Portugal agree that Maluku should belong to Portugal, and the Philippines should belong to Spain. Spain and Portugal had divided the entire world between themselves in 1494. They continued to argue for years over the exact position of the dividing circle. A 1524 conference sponsored by the Pope did not settle matters. 1530 Salahuddin is Sultan of Aceh. Surabaya and Pasuruan submit to Demak. Demak takes Balambangan, the last Hindu state in easternmost Java. Gowa begins expanding from Makassar. Banten extends influence over Lampung. 1536 Major Portuguese attack on Johore. Antonio da Galv?o becomes governor of Portuguese post at Ternate; founds Portuguese post at Ambon. Portuguese take Sultan Tabariji of Ternate to Goa due to suspicions of anti-Portuguese activity, replace him with his brother. 1537 Acehnese attack on Melaka fails. Salahuddin of Aceh is replaced by Alaudin Riayat Syah I. 1539 Aceh attacks the Bataks to their south. 1540 Portuguese in contact with Gowa. Sultanate of Butung founded. 1545 Demak conquers Malang. Gowa builds fort at Ujung Pandang. 1546 Demak invades Balambangan without success. Trenggono of Demak dies and is succeeded by Prawata. His son-in-law Joko Tingkir expands power from Pajang (near present Sukoharjo). St. Francis Xavier travels to Morotai, Ambon, and Ternate. Catholicism (Katolik), one of Indonesia’s five religions. Around this time Portuguese missionaries began to spread the Catholic religion in Indonesia, especially in the east. Today Catholicism is one of Indonesia’s recognized religions. 1547 Aceh attacks Melaka. 1550 Portuguese begin building forts on Flores. 1551 Johore attacks Portuguese Melaka with help from Jepara. Force from Ternate takes control of Sultanate of Jailolo on Halmahera with Portuguese help. 1552 Hasanuddin breaks away from Demak and founds Sultanate of Banten, then takes Lampung for the new Sultanate. Aceh sends embassy to the Ottoman sultan in Istanbul. 1558 Leiliato leads a force from Ternate to attack the Portuguese at Hitu. Portuguese build a fortress on Bacan. Ki Ageng Pemanahan receives Mataram district from Joko Tinggir, ruling at Pajang. Smallpox epidemic at Ternate. 1559 Portuguese missionaries land at Timor. Khairun becomes Sultan of Ternate. Sultan Khairun was friendly to St. Francis Xavier, and was known to be a skillful politician who manipulated the Portuguese into doing what he wanted while claiming to be a Portuguese ally. However, in the end the Portuguese threw him in prison and tried to poison him when he would not yield lands to them. 1560 Portuguese found mission and trading post at Panarukan, in easternmost Java. Spanish establish a presence at Manado. 1561 Sultan Prawata of Demak passes away. Portuguese Dominican mission founded on Solor. 1564 Smallpox epidemic at Ambon. 1565 Aceh sacks Johore. Kutai on Kalimantan converts to Islam. 1566 Portuguese Dominican mission on Solor builds a stone fortress. 1568 Unsuccessful attack by Aceh on Portuguese Melaka. 1569 Portuguese build wooden fortress on Ambon island. 1570 Aceh attacks Johore again, but fails. Sultan Khairun of Ternate signs a treaty of friendship with the Portuguese, but is found poisoned the next day. Portuguese agents are suspected. Babullah becomes Sultan (until 1583), and vows to drive the Portuguese out of their fortress. Maulana Yusup becomes Sultan of Banten. 1571 Alaudin Riayet Shah dies, disorder in Aceh until 1607. 1574 Jepara leads unsuccessful attack on Melaka. 1575 Sultan Babullah expels the Portuguese from Ternate. Portuguese build a fort on Tidore instead. The Portuguese in Ternate were under siege in their fortress for five years, and never received help from Melaka or Goa in India. 1576 Portuguese build fort at the present site of the city of Ambon. 1577 Ki Ageng Pemanahan founds Kota Gede (near today’s Yogya). Sunan Kalijogo as portrayed in an old engraving. 1579 Banten takes the remaining part of Pajajaran, converts it to Islam. November Sir Francis Drake of England, after raiding Spanish ships and ports in America, arrives at Ternate. Sultan Babullah, who also hated the Spanish, pledges friendship to England. A Portuguese map from the late 1500s showing the Indies in rough outlines. This information was kept secret by the Spanish and Portuguese until Dutch and English ships started to make trips to the Indies just before 1600. Some of the subjects of the Pajajaran kingdom who did not convert to Islam left for the high mountains, and became the Badui people of West Java today. 1580 Maulana Muhammad becomes Sultan of Banten. Portugal falls under Spanish crown; Portuguese colonial enterprises are disregarded. Drake visits Sulawesi and Java, on the way back to England. Ternate takes control of Butung. In the 1500s, the Netherlands were an important business center for Europe, where products from Russia, Scandinavia, Africa, Asia and America were bought and sold. The Netherlands during that time was ruled by Spain. By 1581, the Netherlands had rebelled against the King of Spain and had begun to govern themselves. But since Spain now had control of the Portuguese colonies, the Spanish could prevent Dutch businessmen from easy access to spices from the Indies. This was one reason that Dutch ships began to make their own voyages direct to the Indies in the 1590s. 1581 About this time, Kyai Ageng Pemanahan takes over Mataram district (which had been promised to him by Joko Tingkir, who delayed until Sunan Kalijogo of the Nine Walis pressed him), changes name to Kyai Gedhe Mataram. 1584 Sutawijaya succeeds his father Kyai Gedhe Mataram as local ruler of Mataram, ruling from Kota Gede. 1585 Sultan of Aceh sends a letter to Elizabeth I of England. Portuguese ship sent to build a fort and mission on Bali is wrecked just offshore. 1587 Sutawijaya defeats Pajang and Joko Tingkir dies; lineage passes definitely to Sutawijaya. Mount Merapi erupts. Portuguese in Melaka attack Johore. Portuguese sign a truce with the Sultan of Aceh. Sir Thomas Cavendish of England visits Java. 1588 Sutawijaya changes name to Senopati; takes Pajang and Demak. Senopati in a traditional portrait. From Senopati one can easily trace the lineage of today’s Sultan of Yogya and Susuhunan of Surakarta. Traditionally, the line is traced back all the way to the kings of Majapahit. After this point, the power in central Java was definitely in the Mataram district, around today’s Yogyakarta and Surakarta, rather than around Demak. 1590 Original village of Medan founded. 1591 Senopati takes Madiun, then Kediri. Sir James Lancaster of England reaches Aceh and Penang, but his mission is a failure. Ternate attacks Portuguese in Ambon. 1593 Ternate lays siege to the Portuguese in Ambon again. 1595 April 2 Dutch expedition under De Houtman leaves for Indies. Suriansyah makes Banjar on Kalimantan a Sultanate (later Banjarmasin). Portuguese build fort at Ende, Flores. Many Dutch sailors had worked on Spanish and Portuguese ships. When De Houtman’s Dutch expedition set sail, there were experienced crewmen available to guide them to the Indies. 1596 June 5 De Houtman expedition reaches Sumatra. June 23 De Houtman expedition reaches Banten. The initial reception is friendly, but after some rough behavior by the Dutch, the Sultan of Banten, along with the Portuguese stationed in Banten, shell the Dutch ships. The De Houtman expedition continues along north coast of Java. A ship is lost to pirates. More bad behavior leads to misunderstandings and violence on Madura: a prince of Madura is killed, several Dutch sailors are arrested and taken prisoner, De Houtman has to ransom them for release. Abul Mufakir becomes Sultan of Banten. Three Chinese merchants at Banten, late 1500s. 1597 Some members of De Houtman expedition settle on Bali and refuse to leave. A Portuguese fleet under Lourenzo de Brito decides, contrary to instructions, to seek retribution from the Sultan of Banten for doing business with Dutch traders. The fleet is defeated by Banten and forced to retreat. Remnants of the De Houtman expedition (89 of an original 248 sailors) return to Holland with spices. Senopati attacks Banten, but is driven back. Title page from the published account of the de Houtman expedition. The Spanish and Portuguese had maintained secrecy about the results of their explorations. The Dutch broke their monopoly on information. 1598 22 Dutch ships in five expeditions set out for the east. The Netherlands States-General suggests that competing companies should merge. De Houtman’s second expedition includes John Davis, an English spy. Van Noort sets off to sail around the southern tip of America to the Indies. Senopati attacks the western territories of Surabaya. The De Houtman voyage was actually not profitable, (partly due to de Houtman’s own poor judgment and general recklessness) but the businessmen of the Netherlands could see the future potential in the spice trade, and dozens of new voyages were planned to follow its path. This period of is sometimes called the “wilde vaart”. 1599 Dutch expedition under Van Neck reaches Maluku, begins successful trading on Banda, Ambon and Ternate. June De Houtman is killed in conflict with Sultan of Aceh. Dutch churches begin calls for missionary work in the Indies. 1600 Van Noort expedition attacks Spanish at Guam. Portuguese establish trading post at Jepara. Raja of Minangkabau converts to Islam. September Dutch Admiral Van den Haghen makes an alliance with the Hitu against the Portuguese in Ambon. December 31 Elizabeth I of England charters East India Company. 1601 Senopati succeeded by Krapyak in Mataram. Portuguese send a fleet from Goa, India, to drive the Dutch from the Indies. English set up fort at Banda. Aceh sends two ambassadors to Europe to observe and report on the situation to the Sultan. December 25-27 Five Dutch ships defeat the Portuguese fleet of 30 ships in battle in Banten harbor. 1602 March 20 Dutch companies combine to form Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC); led by Heeren XVII representing different regions of the Netherlands; States-General gives VOC power to raise armies, build forts, negotiate treaties and wage war in Asia. VOC begins sending large, well-armed ships to the Indies (38 in the first three years). VOC establishes post at Gresik. Sir James Lancaster leads an (English) East India Company expedition, reaches Aceh, and builds a trading post at Banten. The Dutch East India Company was given most of the powers of a sovereign state, partly because communication between the Netherlands and Asia was so slow that colonial activities simply could not be directed from Amsterdam. (Until 1800 in this time-line, Dutch activities are marked with a VOC for East India Company.) 1603 Official VOC trading post founded at Banten. 1604 English East India Company expedition under Sir Henry Middleton visits Ternate, Tidore, Ambon, and Banda. 1605 Portuguese at Ambon surrender to ships under VOC. King of Gowa converts to Islam, but other kings of the area refuse invitation to convert. Gowa attacks its neighbors and converts them to Islam. VOC sends expeditions to Banda, Irian Jaya, northern Australia. The chief minister to the King of Gowa in these days was named Matoaya. Besides presiding over the conversion of Gowa and Makassar to Islam, he encouraged the establishment of Makassar as a free port opposed to Portuguese or Dutch control, and started a local industry to manufacture firearms, to maintain Gowa’s strength against outside forces. 1606 Spanish take Ternate and Tidore. VOC makes unsuccessful attack on Portuguese Melaka. VOC begins trading at Banjarmasin. 1607 Iskandar Muda is Sultan of Aceh. May Sultan of Ternate appeals to the VOC for help against the Spanish. Aceh under Iskandar Muda and his successor, Iskandar Thani, was a center of Islamic scholarship and debate. 1608 Gowa begins three years of war against the neighboring Kingdom of Bone. 1609 Portuguese fortress on Bacan falls to VOC. 1610 Krapyak of Mataram starts period of heavy attacks on Surabaya. Post of Governor-General is created for VOC in Asia, advised by Raad van Indie (Council of the Indies). 1611 English begin setting up many posts in the Indies, including at Makassar, Jepara, Aceh and Jambi. Dutch set up post at Jayakerta. Gowa conquers Bone, converts it to Islam. 1613 April 18 Dutch take Solor from Portuguese. Portuguese Dominicans move headquarters to Larantuka, Flores. Iskandar Muda of Aceh defeats Johore, burns down the city, carries away the Sultan of Johore and VOC representatives. Mataram forces burn down Gresik; Krapyak asks VOC in Maluku for help against Surabaya. VOC sets up post at Jepara. VOC sets up first post on Timor. Krapyak succeeded by Sultan Agung. 1614 Johore throws out Aceh forces, creates alliance Palembang, Jambi, and other Sultanates against Aceh Aceh wins naval battle against Portuguese at Bintan, continues on to attack Melaka. Agung attacks Surabayan territories. VOC sends ambassador to Agung. Bandung founded. Sultan Agung in a traditional portrait.Agung was the greatest ruler of Mataram. At one point, all of Java except for Banten and Batavia was under his rule. 1615 VOC closes post at Gowa, hostilities drag on for years. First Dutch Reformed church in the east founded at Ambon. English build warehouse at Jayakerta. Dutch abandon Solor after just two years. Protestantism (Kristen), one of Indonesia’s five religions. The Dutch introduced the fifth of Indonesia’s recognized religions: Protestant Christianity. Beside the missionary work on Java, there were soon many “orang Kristen” around Manado on Sulawesi, in Ambon, and around Kupang on Timor and nearby Roti. The VOC, being mostly a business, had very little interest in spreading religion. However, it banned to practice of Catholicism wherever it could. 1616 VOC military expedition against Banda. 1617 Aceh takes Pahang. Agung defeats Surabaya at Pasuruan, defeats Surabayan expedition to his rear; Pajang rebels, Agung destroys Pajang and moves inhabitants to Mataram. Gowa extends control over Sumbawa. “Monopolies” and “smuggling” in these days were sometimes defined by contracts and treaties, but at other times a “monopoly” was simply declared unilaterally. Some of the “smuggling” that occurred would just be called “competition” today. In 1615-1616, the Schouten expedition became the first to sail around Cape Horn at the the southern tip of South America, then made the first visit by Europeans to many south Pacific islands. By the time they arrived in Batavia (Jakarta), Coen had them jailed for violating the V.O.C.’s monopoly, and confiscated their ships. (Years later, in 1722, the Dutch explorer Roggeveen would run into the same trouble after discovering Easter Island.) 1618 Jan Pieterzoon Coen becomes Governor-General of VOC. English merchants attack Chinese ships in Banten in a dispute over the price of pepper. Coen begins secretly fortifying the VOC warehouses at Jayakerta to the east. December Sultan of Banten encourages English to drive Dutch out of Jayakerta. Coen leaves for Maluku to muster ships and soldiers. Agung bans the sale of rice to the VOC. Agung’s governor of Jepara attacks the VOC post there; Dutch burn down much of Jepara in retaliation. Dutch reoccupy Solor. 1619 January English force Dutch surrender at Jayakerta, but Banten forces take over from the English in a surprise move. The English and the Pangeran of Jayakerta retreat. March 12 Dutch rename post at Jayakerta to Batavia (today’s Jakarta). May Coen passes through Jepara, and burns down the city again, including the English trading post. May 28 Coen arrives at Jayakerta, and burns down the original town of Jayakerta, leaving only the Dutch post of Batavia remaining to become VOC headquarters. Agung takes Tuban from Surabaya, destroying the city. August VOC begins building city at Batavia. Agung was not pleased with the Dutch taking Jayakerta, since he had intended to take it himself. Likewise, the Sultan of Banten did not want the English to take it, for the same reason. 1620 VOC under Coen almost exterminates population of Banda to prevent “smuggling”. Survivors settle on small islands near Seram. Aceh takes Kedah. Gowa extends influence over Sumbawa. Rahmatullah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan. Jan Pieterszoon CoenThe most aggressive Governor-General of the V.O.C. One of Coen’s goals was to make the VOC strong enough on its own that it did not have to depend on the goodwill of neighboring rulers. He intended to do this by changing the VOC from a trade empire to an empire that ruled actual territories, then settling those territories with colonists from the Netherlands. Military strength was important, both for maintaining a position of power among the local kings and sultans, and for keeping the Spanish, Portuguese and English away. For Coen, the VOC was more than a business, but for neighboring rulers, such as Sultan Agung, and even for government officials in China, the VOC were mere merchants, and they refused to give VOC officials the same standing in protocol that they gave the representatives of other kings or sultans. 1621 British found trading post at Ambon. 1622 Mataram navy defeats Sukadana (an ally of Surabaya in West Kalimantan), and destroy the city. Agung and VOC make overtures to each other. 1623 VOC agents in Ambon arrest, torture and execute English agents on charges of conspiracy. Aceh sacks Johore. Carstenz expedition for VOC explores southern coast of Irian Jaya. Coen returns to the Netherlands. Carpentier is new Governor-General of the VOC. VOC takes nominal claim to Aru Islands. 1624 Aceh takes Nias. Sultan Agung conquers Madura, and takes 40,000 prisoners. Raden Praseno, a grandson of Pratanu, is named Pangeran Cakraningrat I of Madura by Agung. 1625 Agung dams Brantas River to cut off water supply from Surabaya, which finally surrenders. Cirebon is an ally of Agung. Epidemics and ruin of war spread through Java. Abul Fath becomes Sultan of Banten. In 1625 the first “hongi” raids took place in Maluku. These were attacks, usually by local allies of the VOC, against anyone who was growing cloves without authorization of the VOC. By this time, the VOC was probably the largest business enterprise anywhere in the world, with tens of thousands of employees. The territories controlled by the VOC were not only in Indonesia: in the mid-1600s, they also included Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and the Cape area in what is now South Africa. The VOC also had “factories”, warehouses and offices in Thailand, Japan, Iran, Yemen, and Canton in China. 1627 Coen returns from the Netherlands to serve as Governor-General of the V.O.C. again. December 25 Soldiers from Banten infiltrate the fortress of Batavia, kill some guards, and escape, but do little damage. Around this time, Sultan Agung forced the removal of the entire population of many villages in the Priangan (around today’s Bandung) for disobedience. Around 1200 men were sent back to Mataram from these villages, and executed. 1628 Agung sends army against VOC in Batavia; dams Ciliwung River in attempt to deny fresh water to the VOC. He fails to oust the Dutch, who prevent his army from receiving supplies by sea. Commanders of the Mataram army are executed for failure. Last of the English leave Banda. 1629 Agung attacks Batavia again. He is defeated, although Coen dies during the siege. Banten, fearing Agung now more than the VOC, pleads for peace with the VOC. Iskandar Muda sends navy of Aceh against Portuguese Melaka, but the Aceh navy is destroyed. September 20 Coen passes away. Introduction of sugar cultivation in Banten. 1630 Dutch abandon Solor, which is retaken by the Portuguese. 1631 Agung suppresses rebellion at Sumedang. 1633 Agung raids east Java; the Hindu kingdom of Balambangan asks for VOC help and is refused. Balambangan then asks the King of Gelgel in Bali for help. War between VOC and Banten. Aceh takes the Indrapura area of Minangkabau. 1634 Dutch arrest Kakiali, leader of Hitu in Maluku, on charges of smuggling. This was the “mercantilist” age of trade empires. There were many powers that wanted to create trade empires: the Dutch through the VOC, the English, Banten, and Gowa were among them. There was no such thing as “free trade” under these empires. The VOC especially wanted total control of trade, and any selling to anyone outside the VOC was considered “smuggling”. 1635 Agung tries to take Balambangan, but is defeated by Balinese forces. VOC signs treaty with Kutai on Kalimantan. 1636 Iskandar Thani becomes Sultan of Aceh; supports Islamic learning. Agung begins conquest of easternmost Java. Agung suppresses a revolt in Giri. Agung, realizing that he cannot defeat Dutch, makes overtures towards VOC. Van Diemen becomes Governor-General of VOC. Portuguese abandon posts on Solor after six years. VOC bans all private correspondence (until 1701). 1637 VOC attacks Ternate. VOC releases Kakiali, who pledges friendship to VOC but makes anti-Dutch alliance between Hitu, Ternate, and Gowa. Local Muslims overcome Portuguese fortress at Ende on Flores. Agung gives permission for Portuguese and Catholic refugees from Batavia to settle around Jepara. Agung finally takes Balambangan in easternmost Java. The area is devastated by warfare. Palembang and Banjarmasin send ambassadors to make homage to Agung. Ar-Raniri arrives in Aceh from Gujarat in India. Around this time the VOC started pushing the Portuguese out of many of their posts in Nusa Tenggara. Ar-Raniri was a great writer and scholar in Aceh’s golden age. Among other things, he wrote “Garden of Kings”, a book about Islam and the scientific knowledge of the day. However, he was also a controversial figure in Aceh, and he returned to India in 1644. 1639 Chief minister Matoaya of Gowa is succeeded by his son Pattingalloang. Unlike his father, Pattingalloang did not maintain good relations with the Bugis. The bad feeling would eventually lead some Bugis to side with the VOC against Gowa and Makassar. 1640 Bima on Sumbawa converts to Islam and becomes a Sultanate. Portugal regains independent crown from Spain. Portuguese abandon trading post at Jepara. Cirebon becomes a dependency of Mataram 1641 Taj ul-Alam becomes Sultana of Aceh, starts period of female rulers; Johore and Aceh settle differences. January 14 VOC takes Melaka from Portuguese, with help from the Sultan of Johore. Sultan of Johore opens ports in Riau to all traders. Kakiali and Hitu attack VOC on Ambon. The VOC takeover of Melaka was the real end of Portuguese importance in the region. But after losing Melaka, some Portuguese started trading with Gowa on Sulawesi. After Taj ul-Alam became ruler of Aceh, the centralized power in Aceh lessened, regional ruler gained more power, and Aceh’s tributaries began to show their independence. With the English and Portuguese almost gone, and Batavia and Ambon relatively secure from neighboring rulers, this was the most profitable time for the VOC. 1642 VOC gets monopoly on trade with Palembang by treaty. Hidayatullah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan. Tasman explores coasts of Irian Jaya for VOC on voyage back from New Zealand. “Statutes of Batavia”, based on Roman law, are introduced as a legal code for VOC territories. 1643 VOC has Kakiali murdered, continue drive to take Hitu. 1645 Agung begins building royal tombs at Imogiri, (near today’s Yogya). Mandarsyah becomes Sultan of Ternate with VOC help. VOC established outpost at Perak. 1646 Sultan Agung dies, and is succeeded by Susuhunan Amangkurat I. Mataram controls all Java, more or less, except Banten and Batavia. Relations between Amangkurat I and the VOC are good in the beginning. VOC finally takes Hitu. Dutch arrive again on Solor, abandoned by the Portuguese ten years earlier. September 24 Cooperation treaty between VOC and Mataram, involving promises of mutual assistance against enemies and extradition of runaway debtors, among other things. Ships of Mataram may trade at any VOC port except Ambon, Ternate or Banda, but must apply for a pass at Batavia if they are sailing for Melaka or points beyond. Portuguese begin building a settlement at the present site of Kupang on western Timor. VOC builds a trading post in the Tanimbar Islands. 1647 Amangkurat I moves court to Plered near Karta. Mataram kingdom loses Balambangan in easternmost Java to Balinese forces. 1648 Cakraningrat II takes power in Madura, under Mataram. 1650 VOC intervenes in uprising against Sultan Mandarsyah of Ternate, sparking civil war. Amangkurat I orders Cirebon to attack Banten. Musta’in Billah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan. 1651 VOC reopens post at Jepara; Amangkurat I begins interfering in coastal trade. Sultan Ageng begins rule at Banten (not to be confused with Sultan Agung of Mataram). VOC takes Kupang on western Timor; Portuguese move to Lifau, in what is now East Timor. VOC outpost at Perak is destroyed. 1652 VOC takes Sultan Mandarsyah of Ternate to Batavia, makes him sign agreement not to grow cloves, starts military moves against opposing faction in Ternate. Amangkurat I bans the export of rice or timber. Hongi raids destroy clove cultivation on Buru. Tensions grow between the VOC and Gowa. 1655 Amangkurat I orders that no boats of any kind shall set sail from his ports. 1656 VOC deports population of Hoamoal near Ternate to Ambon. 1657 Amangkurat I attacks Banten again. VOC forces population of Buru to relocate to Kaleji Bay. 1658 VOC sets up post at Manado. War between VOC and Palembang. 1659 VOC forces burn down Palembang, and reestablish the VOC post. Amangkurat I has several family members murdered, including the mother of the future Amangkurat II. July 10 Treaty between VOC and Banten: prisoners and runaway slaves are to be exchanged; VOC receives a presence at Banten free from rent or taxes; boundary between Banten and VOC territory is set. VOC builds fort in the Aru Islands, but soon abandons it. Bugis fighters from a 1650s engraving. 1660 VOC attacks Gowa, destroys Portuguese ships in harbor, and forces peace treaty on Sultan Hasanuddin of Gowa. Arung Palakka of Bone rebels against Gowa; retreats with supporters to Butung. Buleleng begins drive to become power on Bali; King of Klungkung remains as “Dewa Agung” or chief king. Amangkurat I closes ports again; VOC leaves Jepara. Formerly Bali had answered to the King at Gelgel. Around this time, the kingdom split into nine states: BadungBangliBulelengGianyarJembranaKarangasemKlungkungMengwiTabanan 1661 Court rebellion against Amangkurat I. Banten takes diamond-bearing area of Landak on Kalimantan. Amangkurat I had a reputation for being cruel and unpredictable. Besides his disastrous interference in the economy, at one time he had many of the Islamic scholars in Mataram killed, then took their former judicial powers for himself, turning himself into an absolute ruler. 1662 Portuguese headquarters in the east is moved from Larantuka, Flores to Lifau (today Oecussi or Pantemakassar) in what is now East Timor. VOC signs treaty with chiefs on Roti. 1663 Spanish abandon post at Tidore. VOC allows Arung Palakka and followers to settle at Batavia. Banten begins direct trade with Manila. July 6 Treaty of Painan: coastal areas of Minangkabau, including Padang, become a protectorate of the VOC, which guarantees them security against raids from Aceh. By the end of the 1660s, Banten was trading directly with China, Japan, Thailand, India and Arabia, using its own ships to compete with English, French, Danish and VOC traders. Sultan Ageng of Banten was a strong opponent of the VOC monopoly who insisted on promoting trade with other European, Arab and Asian traders as he pleased. 1666 VOC sends out a fleet under Admiral Cornelis Speelman, with Bugis soldiers under Arung Palakka and Ambonese soldiers under “Captain Jonker”, to settle issues in Gowa and Maluku. Cornelis Speelman, Admiral and later Governor-General. Speelman left the Netherlands as a teenager and spent the rest of his life in the Indies, never returning. 1667 VOC expedition under Speelman lands at Butung, and clears the island of Gowa forces. Speelman expedition forces the Sultan of Tidore (now free of Spanish presence) to submit to the VOC. A peace treaty is signed between Ternate and Tidore, now both under VOC control. The future Amangkurat II begins seeking VOC help against his father. English give up claims to Banda in exchange for Manhattan Island in America. Sultan Hasanuddin of Gowa is remembered for fighting bravely against the VOC, but he eventually had to sign a treaty giving up almost all his territories to the Dutch. 1668 Arung Palakka returns to Bone, sparking a popular revolt against the Sultan of Gowa. Speelman expedition finally defeats Gowa. November 18 Treaty of Bungaya: Gowa submits to VOC control, and Sultan Hasanuddin has no influence outside the general area of the city of Makassar. VOC extends claims to Sumbawa and Flores after the defeat of Gowa. Bugis leaving the confusion on Sulawesi found Samarinda on Kalimantan. VOC builds a fort at Menggala in Lampung. By this time, the Portuguese in Makassar and Gowa had fled to Flores, or even to Macao or Thailand. 1669 Sultan Hasanuddin of Gowa passes away; continuing troubles against the VOC in Gowa finally end. VOC traders at Banjarmasin are massacred. 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